Omar Bennett
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials or their network contacts for illegitimate private gain. It undermines democracy and good governance by flouting formal processes, reducing accountability, and eroding the institutional capacity of governments. Corruption can manifest in various forms, including bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, and nepotism, and may facilitate criminal activities such as drug trafficking and money laundering. Political infighting, on the other hand, refers to the internal conflicts and power struggles within a political party or government. While it does not always involve corruption, infighting can create opportunities for corruption as factions within a party or government may pursue their interests at the expense of the public good. Both political corruption and infighting can destabilize countries, weaken democratic values, and lead to inefficient governance.
Characteristics of Political Infighting and Corruption in the Constitution
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Political corruption | Use of power by government officials for illegitimate private gain |
| Forms of corruption | Bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, embezzlement |
| Impact of corruption | Undermines democracy and good governance, erodes institutional capacity, reduces accountability, distorts representation in policymaking, compromises the rule of law, results in inefficient public service provision |
| Types of corruption | White corruption (tolerated and may be lawful, based on family ties), grey corruption (reprehensible but involved lack sense of wrongdoing), black corruption (violates society's norms and laws), shadow politics (concealed behaviour beyond legitimate informal political agreements) |
| Judicial corruption | State control of judiciary budgets, undermining separation of powers and creating financial dependence |
| Anti-corruption efforts | Legal frameworks, investigative and prosecutorial capacities, economic sanctions, visa restrictions, diplomatic engagement, positive messaging and incentives for reform |
| Historical context | United States Constitution framers aware of corruption, sought to prevent it through salary determinations and disqualification of Congressmen from executive offices |
| Challenges | Defining "corruption", varying societal perceptions, ineffective laws, lack of objective measures, transnational nature of corruption |
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What You'll Learn
Judicial corruption
Political corruption refers to the abuse of power by government officials for personal gain. This can include bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, and embezzlement. Corruption undermines democracy and good governance by subverting formal processes and eroding trust in institutions.
- Political interference: External influences, particularly from political actors, can impact the outcome of civil or criminal cases, compromising the rule of law.
- Bribery: Demands or offers of money, gifts, or other benefits are made to influence the processes or outcomes of court cases. This can involve judges, prosecutors, or court officials.
- Extortion: Judicial actors may be coerced to act corruptly under the threat of violence or the release of damaging information.
- Nepotism: Judicial actors may engage in nepotism by providing benefits or favourable treatment to close contacts or family members, such as awarding procurement contracts.
- Misuse of public funds: Misappropriation of public resources can delay or collapse trials and further erode the public's trust in the justice system.
Anti-corruption efforts in the judiciary aim to balance accountability and independence. Judicial independence is crucial to ensuring that political actors cannot influence judicial decision-making. At the same time, judicial actors must be accountable for their decisions and actions to higher courts and society. Transparency and anti-corruption tools can play a role in combating judicial corruption, but they must be balanced with the need for confidentiality and privacy in certain judicial processes.
International initiatives, such as the United Nations Convention against Corruption and its Global Judicial Integrity Network, provide a framework for promoting judicial integrity and combating corruption globally. Additionally, countries like India have established anti-corruption bureaus and introduced legislation to specifically address judicial corruption.
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Corruption in elections
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials or their network contacts for illegitimate private gain. It undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or subverting formal processes. Corruption in elections, in particular, reduces accountability and distorts representation in policymaking.
Elections are the cornerstone of democracy, providing a mechanism for citizens to express their political preferences and choose their governments. However, in many countries, especially those with weaker democratic institutions, corruption poses a serious threat to the legitimacy of electoral processes and outcomes. This can occur through various means, including vote-buying, abuse of state resources, and election rigging. Vote-buying happens when a politician or party provides favours (such as access to public services or preferential treatment) to voters in exchange for their political support and commitment to vote. Abuse of state resources involves the use of publicly owned resources to favour one party or candidate over others, often through financing. Election rigging, on the other hand, manipulates electoral outcomes through practices such as ballot-stuffing, misinforming voters, misrecording votes, and manipulating voter registers or demographic information.
To combat election corruption, certain measures can be implemented. For instance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States plays a role in ensuring fair and free elections, categorising federal election crimes into three types: campaign finance crimes, voter/ballot fraud, and civil rights violations. Additionally, in countries like India, anti-corruption bureaus and new legislation, such as the Jan Lokpal Bill, are being established to fight corruption.
The perception of corruption also varies across societies. One perspective categorises corruption into white, grey, and black types. White corruption is often viewed with tolerance and may even be lawful, typically based on family ties. Grey corruption, which occurs in transitioning democracies, is considered reprehensible according to societal norms, but those involved often lack a sense of wrongdoing. Black corruption is severe and violates a society's norms and laws. Another dimension, "shadow politics", refers to the informal political process that goes beyond legitimate agreements to engage in concealed behaviours.
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Corruption in the legislature
Political corruption undermines democracy and good governance, and this is especially true when it comes to corruption in the legislature. Corruption in the legislature reduces accountability, distorts representation in policymaking, and erodes the institutional capacity of the government. It can take many forms, including bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement.
Legislators may use their positions to obtain illegitimate private gain, such as through bribery or lobbying, or they may engage in "institutional corruption" where the institution acts against the interests of the public, such as by misusing public funds. This type of corruption can be difficult to eradicate, even in developed countries, as it is often ingrained in the political system and human nature. The framers of the United States Constitution, for example, were well aware of the potential for corruption and tried to establish safeguards to prevent it.
One example of legislative corruption is when members of the legislature set their own salaries, which can lead to a dependence on the state that "vitiates the whole system," as Edmund Randolph of Virginia argued during the creation of the US Constitution. Another example is when legislators become "mere Agents and Advocates of State interests and views instead of being the impartial umpires and Guardians of justice and the general good," as Madison observed. This type of corruption can lead to the legislature being controlled by special interests or particular states, undermining the impartiality and justice that the legislative branch is meant to uphold.
Legislative corruption can also take the form of illegal or immoral behavior, such as engaging in criminal enterprises like drug trafficking, money laundering, or human trafficking. It can also involve the misuse of public funds, the sale of public offices, or the abuse of power to benefit oneself, one's family, or one's friends. This type of corruption erodes trust in the government and undermines democratic values.
To combat legislative corruption, countries can establish anti-corruption regimes that include legal frameworks, institutions, and capacities to prevent, detect, and prosecute corruption. This includes measures such as economic sanctions and visa restrictions to block corrupt officials from accessing their ill-gotten gains, as well as training investigators and prosecutors to track and recover stolen public assets. Additionally, countries can work together to promote reforms and establish international treaties, such as the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC), to hold each other accountable and share best practices.
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Corruption in public administration
Political corruption occurs when a government official uses their power for illegitimate private gain. Corruption can take many forms, including bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. It undermines democracy and good governance by flouting formal processes, reducing accountability, and distorting representation in policymaking. Corruption in public administration, in particular, results in the inefficient provision of services.
The perception of corruption varies across societies. One scholar, Heidenheimer, divides corruption into three categories: white, grey, and black corruption. White corruption is often viewed with tolerance and may even be lawful and legitimate, typically based on family ties and patron-client systems. Grey corruption, which occurs in constitutional states or states transitioning to democracy, is considered reprehensible according to societal moral norms, but those involved often lack a sense of wrongdoing. Black corruption is severe and violates a society's norms and laws. Another dimension, "shadow politics," refers to informal political processes that go beyond legitimate agreements and are purposefully concealed.
The ICAC Act in Australia defines "corruption in public administration" as certain types of criminal offences, including offences against specific legislation such as the Public Sector (Honesty and Accountability) Act 1995 and the Lobbyists Act 2015. Corruption in public administration can be committed by anyone, such as bribery of a public officer, or it may be limited to "public officers," such as abuse of public office. It is distinct from misconduct or maladministration in public administration, which are non-criminal instances of wrongdoing by public officers or authorities. Misconduct involves intentional and serious breaches of a code of conduct, while maladministration involves substantial mismanagement or irregular and unauthorized use of public money or resources.
The study of corruption in public administration is a growing field of research. Davide Torsello's book, "Corruption in Public Administration," offers a holistic take on the concept, including socio-cultural dimensions, and provides practical policy solutions, especially regarding gift-exchange. The book draws on fieldwork data from eight countries: Bosnia, Hungary, Italy, Kosovo, Mexico, Russia, Tanzania, and Turkey, providing diverse insights into administrative corruption.
Addressing corruption in public administration is crucial for restoring trust in government and ensuring efficient service provision. It requires a combination of anti-corruption legislation, organizational change, and a commitment to integrity at all levels of society.
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Institutional corruption
Political corruption undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or subverting formal processes. It erodes the institutional capacity of the government and undermines its legitimacy. Corruption in elections and in the legislature reduces accountability and distorts representation in policymaking. Corruption in the judiciary compromises the rule of law, and corruption in public administration results in the inefficient provision of services.
The mafia state phenomenon is an example of institutional corruption, where criminal organisations exert control over government institutions and use them for their own gain. In some cases, government officials may have broad or ill-defined powers, making it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. This can enable institutional corruption by providing cover for immoral or unethical behaviour.
To combat institutional corruption, it is important to establish checks and balances, promote transparency and accountability, and ensure the independence of anti-corruption bodies. In some countries, anti-corruption bureaus or ombudsman bills are established to fight against corruption and hold those in power accountable.
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Frequently asked questions
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials or their network contacts for illegitimate private gain. It undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or subverting formal processes.
There are several types of political corruption, including bribery, lobbying, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, and embezzlement. Some forms of corruption are institutional, where state institutions act against the interests of the public, such as by misusing public funds.
Political corruption can have severe negative impacts on a country. It can lead to the inefficient provision of services, waste public resources, destabilize the country, and impede good governance. Corruption can also facilitate criminal enterprises, such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking.
