Simone Lawson
Hostage diplomacy is the act of taking hostages for diplomatic purposes. It is a controversial practice in modern diplomacy, often associated with criminal hostage-taking. In hostage diplomacy, foreigners are arrested on false charges and used as bargaining chips to exert pressure and gain coercive leverage in diplomatic negotiations. This strategy has been employed by countries such as China, Turkey, Iran, North Korea, and Russia, and poses a significant international security threat. The rise in state-level hostage-taking has replaced kidnapping by non-state actors as the primary international hostage-taking concern.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The taking of hostages for diplomatic purposes |
| Modern countries that have engaged in it | China, Turkey, Iran, North Korea, Russia, Cuba, Egypt, Syria |
| Historic use | Common in the ancient world, with a long history of political and military use |
| Ancient use case | In ancient China, during the Eastern Zhou period, vassal states would exchange hostages to ensure mutual trust |
| Recent use case | In 2023, four agents of the French secret services were imprisoned by the Burkina Faso authorities |
| Recent use case | In 2021, China began practicing hostage diplomacy towards Taiwan |
| Recent use case | In 2020, China arrested Australian news anchor Cheng Lei, viewed as a possible incidence of hostage diplomacy |
| Recent use case | In 2018, China arrested Canadian citizens Michael Kovrig and Michael Spavor, possibly to pressure the release of Huawei CFO Meng Wanzhou from Canada |
| Recent use case | In 2019, China detained Australian Yang Hengjun, possibly in response to the arrest of Meng Wanzhou |
| Recent use case | In 2021, two Canadians and two Americans detained in China, possibly linked to hostage diplomacy over Meng Wanzhou's court case, were freed after her release |
| Recent use case | Iran's government has used hostage diplomacy as a key diplomatic tool, detaining Western nationals, dual citizens, or Iranian citizens residing in Europe, Australia, or the US |
| Impact | Presents a range of security threats, including cyber attacks, foreign interference, economic coercion, and misinformation |
| Impact | The impact on victims and their families is immeasurable |
| Response | The US created the Special Presidential Envoy for Hostage Affairs (SPEHA), a senior-level position at the Department of State to coordinate diplomatic efforts to recover Americans kidnapped or wrongfully detained abroad |
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What You'll Learn
Hostage diplomacy is a phenomenon of statecraft
In contemporary times, hostage diplomacy often involves the detention of foreigners on trumped-up charges, who are then used as bargaining chips in negotiations. This strategy has been employed by countries such as China, Turkey, Iran, North Korea, and Russia. For example, China has been accused of detaining foreign nationals, such as Canadian citizens Michael Kovrig and Michael Spavor, as leverage in diplomatic negotiations. These detentions may be used as a form of retaliation or to gain coercive leverage.
Hostage diplomacy can also be used as a national security strategy, with states using the threat of hostage-taking to deter adversaries. This practice has increased in recent years, with states replacing kidnapping by non-state actors as the chief international hostage-taking concern. The targets of hostage diplomacy are typically individuals with extensive experience in the countries where they are being held captive.
The rise in hostage diplomacy can be attributed to the increasing geopolitical fragmentation and the shift from the global war on terror to strategic competition between states. This practice has been widely criticized by human rights organizations and Western governments, as it blurs the boundaries between legitimate arrests and illicit kidnapping, causing immeasurable harm to victims and their families.
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It is an international security threat
Hostage diplomacy is a threat to international security. It is a phenomenon of statecraft, a form of state-level hostage-taking, where hostages are taken under the guise of law for use as foreign policy leverage. This occurs when a state deploys its criminal justice system to detain a foreigner, often on trumped-up charges, and then uses the prisoner as a bargaining chip in the pursuit of foreign policy objectives. While this practice was common in the ancient world, it is controversial in modern diplomacy.
The rise of hostage diplomacy can be attributed to its effectiveness in achieving foreign policy goals. For instance, China's detention of two Canadian citizens, Michael Kovrig and Michael Spavor, was clearly an act of retaliation for Canada's imposition of house arrest on Huawei's Meng Wanzhou. Similarly, Hamas used the captured Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit as leverage to obtain the release of more than 1,000 Palestinian prisoners in 2011. These incidents demonstrate the use of hostages as a strategic tool to gain coercive leverage or deter similar actions in the future.
Hostage diplomacy has been employed by several countries, including China, Turkey, Iran, North Korea, Russia, and the United States. It is widely criticized by human rights organizations and Western governments due to its impact on victims and their families, as well as its potential to undermine diplomatic relations. The practice blurs the lines between legitimate arrests and illicit kidnapping, making it difficult to counter. The increase in state hostage-taking has replaced kidnapping by non-state actors as the chief international hostage-taking concern.
To address this growing threat, collective responses are necessary to fortify shared security. Efforts such as the creation of the Special Presidential Envoy for Hostage Affairs (SPEHA) in the US demonstrate a commitment to recovering hostages and supporting their families. Additionally, events like the 3rd Anniversary of the Declaration Against Arbitrary Detention in State-to-State Relations aim to explore the international security dimensions of wrongful detention. These initiatives are crucial in upholding a strong collective front against hostage diplomacy and other hybrid security threats, such as cyber attacks, foreign interference, economic coercion, and misinformation.
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It is a controversial practice in modern diplomacy
Hostage diplomacy is a controversial practice in modern diplomacy. It is associated with criminal hostage-taking and often involves the arrest of foreigners on false charges. The hostages are then used as bargaining chips, with their release negotiated in exchange for diplomatic or economic concessions. This strategy blurs the lines between legitimate arrests and illicit kidnapping, and it has been employed by countries such as China, Turkey, Iran, North Korea, and Russia.
The use of hostage diplomacy has been criticised by human rights organisations and Western governments. It undermines the "peaceful rise" narrative that some countries, like China, aim to project. Additionally, it exacerbates tensions between the hostage-taking country and the countries involved, complicating negotiations and hindering progress toward accommodation. For instance, Iran's detention of foreigners has been utilised by hard-liners within the country to delay progress toward accommodation with the outside world.
Hostage diplomacy can also have detrimental effects on the victims and their families. The detainees may be held for extended periods, losing meaningful portions of their lives. Their families experience immense agony, not knowing the fate of their loved ones. The impact of this practice on those affected is immeasurable, and it is essential to uphold a strong collective front against it.
To address the issue of hostage diplomacy, countries have taken various measures. For example, the Obama White House issued Presidential Policy Directive 30 (PPD-30) and Executive Order 13698 in 2015, creating an interagency body to coordinate hostage recovery activities and establishing the Special Presidential Envoy for Hostage Affairs (SPEHA) to handle diplomatic efforts for recovering hostages. Additionally, in February 2021, 58 countries, including Japan, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, formed a coalition to condemn the arbitrary detention of foreign nationals for diplomatic leverage, targeting China's practices without explicitly naming the country.
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It is a tactic used by non-state actors
Hostage diplomacy is a tactic used by both state and non-state actors. It involves the taking of hostages for diplomatic purposes and is considered a controversial practice in modern diplomacy. While it was a common practice in the ancient world, it is now often associated with criminal hostage-taking. The hostages are typically foreigners who are arrested on trumped-up charges and then held as bargaining chips.
Non-state actors, such as insurgent groups or terrorist organisations, have been known to engage in hostage diplomacy as a means of exerting political leverage. For example, Hamas has been known to take hostages to exert pressure on Israel, and the Islamic State has kidnapped and beheaded several Americans. The rise of hostage diplomacy by non-state actors presents a significant international security threat and has led to an increase in collective responses and counter-measures by states.
The impact of hostage diplomacy on victims and their families is immeasurable, and it is important for states to have a clear understanding of the phenomenon to effectively address it. The creation of interagency bodies and positions, such as the Special Presidential Envoy for Hostage Affairs (SPEHA) in the United States, has been a step towards coordinating hostage recovery activities and responding to hostage diplomacy cases involving both state and non-state actors.
The rise of hostage diplomacy by non-state actors can be attributed to the effectiveness of this tactic in achieving their goals. By taking hostages, non-state actors are able to gain coercive leverage and exert pressure on their adversaries. Additionally, hostage diplomacy can be used as a deterrent to prevent similar actions in the future.
It is important to note that the use of hostage diplomacy by non-state actors is not limited to targeting state actors. In some cases, non-state actors may engage in hostage diplomacy against other non-state actors or even individuals. The dynamic nature of this practice makes it even more challenging to address and counter.
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It is a strategy used by the Islamic Republic of Iran
Iran's use of hostage diplomacy began soon after the 1979 Iranian revolution, with the seizure of US diplomats as hostages. This set a precedent for hostage diplomacy, with Tehran using hostages as leverage to extract concessions from other states. Over the years, Iran has detained foreign and dual nationals, often on trumped-up charges, and used them as bargaining chips to gain diplomatic or economic concessions from their home states. For instance, in 2016, the Obama administration agreed to a $1.7 billion debt settlement to free hostages held in Iran. In 2022, the UK structured a similar arrangement, agreeing to repay a £400 million debt to free two UK-based Iranian nationals.
The reasons for detaining individuals vary and are circumstantial and context-dependent. However, hostage diplomacy has shifted from an opportunistic tactic to a more strategic approach, with Iran actively seeking out foreign and dual nationals. These hostages are kept for longer periods, complicating their release negotiations.
The practice has been a growing concern for many countries, including the US, which declared the wrongful detention of its nationals abroad a national emergency. The European Commission is also facing calls to implement a strategy to prevent its citizens from being used for political leverage. Despite the controversy and efforts to secure the release of hostages, Iran's hostage diplomacy continues, with the country plotting to kidnap UK-based individuals multiple times since 2022.
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Frequently asked questions
Hostage diplomacy is the act of taking hostages for diplomatic purposes. It is considered a controversial practice in modern diplomacy, often associated with criminal hostage-taking.
In 2018, China arrested Canadian citizens Michael Kovrig and Michael Spavor, allegedly in retaliation for Canada's detention of Huawei's Meng Wanzhou. China has also been accused of detaining American citizens, including Mark Swidan, Alice Lin, and Kai Li. Iran has also been known to engage in hostage diplomacy, with hostages including Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe, Kylie Moore-Gilbert, and Morad Tahbaz.
States may use hostage diplomacy as a national security strategy or to gain coercive leverage in negotiations. It can also be a way to derail efforts at accommodation or to impose costs on other countries to deter similar actions in the future.
