Isabella Carter
Diplomacy has proven to be an effective tool for conflict resolution, with a rich history of successful implementations. From the Camp David Accords to the Good Friday Agreement, diplomacy has prevented deaths, economic turmoil, and secured peace. In the context of international relations, diplomacy is essential for managing the complex dynamics of the 21st century, including the realignment of power structures and the management of global issues. The practice of diplomacy has evolved to include unofficial and hybrid forms, such as Track 1.5 and Track 3, which aim to involve a diverse range of stakeholders in peacemaking efforts. Preventive diplomacy, a critical aspect of the United Nations' mission, focuses on taking diplomatic action to prevent disputes from escalating and limit the spread of conflicts.
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What You'll Learn
Preventive diplomacy
Since the Cold War, the international community has increasingly focused on preventive diplomacy, recognizing the high costs of managing conflicts. For example, the UN's peacekeeping mission in Macedonia (UNPREDEP) from 1995 to 1999 was the first UN preventive action, aiming to prevent disputes and manage crises through diplomatic means.
The United Nations' Agenda for Peace (1992) defines preventive diplomacy as "action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and to limit the spread of conflicts when they occur." This definition differentiates preventive diplomacy from peacemaking, which involves resolving large-scale conflicts through mediation and negotiation, and peacekeeping, which is a more distant relative.
The absence of a universally shared definition of preventive diplomacy has led to some differences in interpretation. Some view it as "soft" mediation, while others see it as "muscular" diplomacy, including potential threats of pre-emptive military action. In certain regions, preventive diplomacy is seen as a consensual resolution of tensions, while in others, it may be perceived as a form of appeasement that doesn't address the underlying drivers of conflict.
The Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) plays a crucial role in supporting preventive diplomacy. It provides conflict analysis, planning, and support to peace envoys, as well as overseeing field-based special political missions. The DPPA also advises the Secretary-General, who can offer their ""good offices" to help parties in conflict settle disputes peacefully through diplomatic envoys dispatched to areas of tension.
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Unofficial diplomacy
Track II diplomacy can involve academics, retired officials, NGO leaders, and other societal figures who are not bound by official roles. They explore fresh ideas, build relationships, and seek new paths forward without the constraints of formal commitments. These non-governmental, informal, and unofficial contacts host activities such as workshops and conversations to improve communication and foster a better understanding of conflicting groups' points of view.
An example of successful Track II diplomacy is the Oslo Accords of 1993 between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which started as an unofficial initiative by a Norwegian scholar. By the time it was finalized, it had transitioned into official Track I diplomacy, with a handshake between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO head Yasser Arafat on the White House lawn.
Another variation of unofficial diplomacy is Track 1.5, which involves incorporating some level of official representation into unofficial dialogues. This approach bridges the gap between official and unofficial diplomacy, enhancing credibility, transferability, and effectiveness. Additionally, Track Three emphasizes the importance of involving civil society in conflict resolution through public advocacy, ensuring that peace efforts are inclusive and transformative.
In a rapidly changing world, with escalating internal strife fueled by technological advances and climate change, traditional diplomacy may fall short. This has led to the exploration of innovative conflict resolution strategies, such as unofficial diplomacy, to achieve lasting peace.
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Track Two diplomacy
Track II diplomacy, also known as "back-channel diplomacy", is a form of unofficial, non-governmental diplomacy that aims to resolve or ease conflicts through improved communication and understanding between conflicting groups. It was first conceptualized in the 1970s by academics, free-thinking state department bureaucrats, and public intellectuals, who observed that private individuals meeting unofficially could find common ground that official negotiators might not be able to.
Track II diplomacy is not a substitute for official government-to-government diplomacy (Track I diplomacy) but rather serves as a complementary process. It involves skilled, educated, experienced, and informed private citizens interacting with other private citizens to facilitate conflict resolution. These citizens host activities such as workshops and conversations to improve communication and understanding between conflicting groups, with the ultimate goal of reducing tension and fear. Track II diplomacy can be particularly effective in intra-state conflicts, which make up the majority of armed conflicts in today's world.
One successful example of Track II diplomacy is the Oslo Accords of 1993 between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which began as unofficial contacts facilitated by a Norwegian scholar. This eventually transitioned into Track I diplomacy, culminating in a handshake between Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and PLO head Yasser Arafat on the White House lawn. Another example is the sustained Jewish-Palestinian Living Room Dialogue Group, which began in 1992.
Track II diplomacy can also be used to support peace processes, maintain communication channels when official channels are closed, and provide a forum for discussing challenging policy issues. It can be especially useful when parties are not yet committed to a negotiation process or are stuck and seeking alternative ideas to overcome an impasse. Additionally, Track II diplomacy can facilitate grassroots and civil society participation, which is crucial when these groups have been excluded from official processes.
To be effective, Track II diplomacy requires high levels of commitment, preparation, and skill. Mediator teams should be coordinated and include individuals who speak the native language and have cultural knowledge of the conflict to build relationships and enhance contextual understanding. While Track II diplomacy was initially viewed with suspicion by governments, it is increasingly recognized as a valuable tool for addressing complex global challenges and unconventional conflicts.
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![Conflict resolution : track two diplomacy Center for the Study of Foreign Affairs ; edited by John W. McDonald Jr. and Diane B. Bendahmane. 1987 [Leather Bound]](https://m.media-amazon.com/images/I/61IX47b4r9L._AC_UY218_.jpg)
Public diplomacy
In the context of conflict resolution, public diplomacy aims to create alternatives to violence by employing various tools and approaches with immediate and long-term impacts. This includes integrating civilian expertise into military operations, such as rule of law specialists, community leaders, and conflict resolution experts. Public diplomacy also involves dispatching diplomats to work directly with military leaders, ensuring that strategies are developed collaboratively.
One example of public diplomacy in action is the use of female engagement teams by the military in Afghanistan. These teams reach out to communities affected by violence, creating strong links with local organizers, conveners, and supporters. By building these connections, public diplomacy plays a crucial role in preventing deadly conflicts, managing ongoing conflicts, and rebuilding civil societies in their aftermath.
In conclusion, public diplomacy is a powerful tool in conflict resolution, fostering mutual understanding, building trust, and creating alternatives to violence. By engaging directly with foreign publics, nations can strengthen their relationships and work together towards a more secure global environment.
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Confidence-building measures
CBMs have been used in international relations for centuries, including the existence of and increased activities by embassies. Embassies are institutions located inside the territory of other states, staffed by people with strong interpersonal skills who can explain and resolve misunderstandings due to differences in language and culture, and can encourage local knowledge of a foreign culture.
CBMs originated during the Cold War, with hotlines established between statesmen and military personnel in the United States and the Soviet Union. Following the 1971 conflict between India and Pakistan, the two countries established communication hotlines, agreed to prior notification of military exercises, and agreed not to attack nuclear facilities. CBMs were also a significant component of arms control negotiations and agreements in the early 1970s, including the Helsinki Final Act Document (1975), the Stockholm CSBM Document (1986), and the Vienna Document (1990).
CBMs can be used to modify perceptions and expectations, which can change relations and behaviour, and thereby change the context of conflict resolution. They can include unilateral commitments on the non-use of force, improving the security situation and building confidence. CBMs can also involve exchanging information and making it possible to verify this information, especially regarding armed forces and military equipment.
In the context of preventive diplomacy, CBMs can be used to discourage violence and open space for preventive action. They can also be used within the context of peacekeeping missions to support preventive action and discourage the use of violence.
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Frequently asked questions
Diplomacy in conflict resolution refers to the process of resolving international conflicts through diplomatic means, such as negotiations, peace agreements, and treaties. It involves finding cooperative solutions to global issues and conflict management.
Some notable examples of successful diplomacy in conflict resolution include:
- The Camp David Accords: In 1978, President Jimmy Carter facilitated a historic peace treaty between Israel and Egypt.
- The Good Friday Agreement: The United States brokered this agreement in 1998, ending three decades of sectarian violence in Northern Ireland.
- The Dayton Accords: The United States negotiated a peace agreement to end the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, which claimed over 200,000 lives.
- Sierra Leone: The United Nations hailed the country's successful post-conflict transition following a brutal civil war from 1991 to 2002.
There are various tracks of diplomacy employed in conflict resolution, including:
- Track 1.5: Secret meetings conducted by influential elites to address global issues.
- Track 2: Multi-stakeholder diplomacy involving multiple levels of society to achieve a more inclusive and durable peace.
- Track 3: Grassroots diplomacy that empowers civil society stakeholders, who traditionally have no seat at the peacemaking table, to promote permanent social change.
