Simone Lawson
African diplomacy has evolved over the years, with the continent’s governments attaining official independence in the 1960s. The practice of diplomacy in Africa involves influencing other governments' actions and decisions through discussion, negotiation, and peacekeeping initiatives to maintain peaceful relations. Pre-colonial African diplomacy was similar to medieval European diplomacy, with treaties, borders, and problem-solving discussions. African diplomacy has played a significant role in addressing issues such as Apartheid and the Darfur conflict. South African diplomacy has transitioned from being secret and low-key to embracing summitry and a prominent role for the head of state, with a strong regional focus. Kenyan diplomacy has also gained recognition, with President William Ruto frequently presenting the African perspective at international summits. China has been accused of escalating diplomatic pressure on Africa, influencing politicians and lawmakers, while the US has been criticised for neglecting the region.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Established approach | Influencing other governments' and individuals' actions and decisions through discussion, negotiation, and other means for maintaining peaceful relations |
| Guiding themes | Quest for justice and equality in international relations and the necessity for development and peace in the continent |
| History | Many centralized governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa had advanced diplomatic techniques by the 16th century |
| Pre-colonial diplomacy | Treaties were negotiated, borders were established, old disagreements were resolved, and impending problems were discussed |
| Official independence | The age of modern African state diplomacy started in the 1960s when the continent's governments attained official independence |
| Post-colonial diplomacy | The old OAU doctrine of non-intervention gave way to the new AU doctrine of non-indifference |
| Current developments | South African diplomacy is subject to special tensions and is continuously evolving in response to the needs of the times |
| Regional stewardship | Kenyan President William Ruto is frequently called upon to present the “African perspective” at international summits |
| Foreign relations | African diplomacy is shaped by domestic and international factors |
| Influence of external actors | African agency in foreign policy appears to be limiting the influence of external actors on African security issues |
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What You'll Learn
The evolution of African diplomacy
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 marked the beginning of the colonial division of Africa, which significantly altered the diplomatic landscape. During the colonial era, tribal leaders and traditional rulers in Central and East Africa, as well as in British and French colonies, played a crucial role in shaping diplomatic relations with colonial powers. Secret diplomacy, unknown to the public, was prevalent in this era.
The attainment of independence by many African countries in the 1960s ushered in a new phase of African diplomacy. The continent's governments now had the opportunity to pursue their foreign policies and interests independently. Ethiopian diplomacy, with its successful bid for membership in the League of Nations in the 1920s, stands out as an early example of modern African state diplomacy.
In the post-independence era, African countries have continued to assert their agency in foreign policy matters. The Lusaka Commonwealth summit in 1979, hosted by Kenneth Kaunda, marked a significant moment for African diplomacy, showcasing the continent's ability to engage in multilateral negotiations and gain allies from diverse regions.
In recent years, African countries have further solidified their diplomatic prowess. South Africa, for instance, has transformed from a pariah state during the apartheid era to a fully integrated member of the international community, adopting a "universal foreign policy." Kenya, under President William Ruto, has also stepped up as a regional leader, frequently offering to mediate military conflicts and presenting the "African perspective" at international summits.
African diplomacy continues to evolve and adapt to changing global dynamics. The rise of China has brought new diplomatic challenges and opportunities for the continent, with Beijing exerting significant influence through economic investments and diplomatic pressure. Meanwhile, the United States is also seeking to strengthen its ties with Africa, recognizing the continent's growing importance in global affairs. As a result, African countries are navigating complex geopolitical landscapes while striving to promote their interests and values on the world stage.
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African diplomacy in a global context
African diplomacy has evolved and continues to evolve in response to domestic and international changes. The history of African diplomacy is extensive, with centralized governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa having advanced diplomatic techniques by the sixteenth century. These procedures were founded on customary law and might be seen as the foundation for permanent diplomacy. Treaties were negotiated, borders were established, old disagreements were resolved, and impending problems were discussed.
Islam and interactions with Europeans significantly impacted African diplomacy before colonialism. Islam encouraged trade between the Mediterranean and West Africa, and the trans-Saharan Caravan trade expanded following interactions with Muslims. In the nineteenth century, European influence in Africa gradually started to intensify, leading to a vicious struggle for dominance in the late 1870s. The division of Africa officially began with the Berlin Conference (1884-1885).
The age of modern African state diplomacy began in the 1960s when the continent's governments attained official independence. Ethiopian diplomacy in the League of Nations is a notable exception, with Ethiopia recognized as a member in 1923. During the colonial era, significant non-state diplomatic players also operated within Africa, including tribal leaders in Central and East Africa, and traditional rulers in Nigeria, who had a considerable degree of autonomy and mastered dealing with colonial officials.
In recent times, African diplomacy has continued to play an important role in global affairs. For example, in 2004, the African Union (AU) recognized the seriousness of the humanitarian situation in Darfur, and in 2007, it intervened in association with the UN, with hybrid forces from Africa and other regions. The Southern African Development Community (SADC) military initiative, involving South African and Tanzanian troops, successfully engaged the Congolese M23 rebels in 2013 under SADC and UN Security Council resolutions.
Additionally, South African diplomacy has undergone historic changes since the beginning of the 1990s, transitioning from one of the most isolated countries to a fully integrated member of the international community conducting a "universal foreign policy." South African diplomacy has become more conventional, characterized by summitry and a powerful role for the head of state, with a strong regional focus and a multilateral approach.
Kenya has also stepped up in matters of regional stewardship, with President William Ruto frequently presenting the "African perspective" at international summits and offering to mediate military situations in Niger and Sudan, reflecting a promising future for African diplomacy. Furthermore, the understanding that African agency in foreign policy is limiting the influence of external actors on African security issues.
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African unity and independence
African diplomacy has a long history, with many centralized governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa employing advanced diplomatic techniques as early as the 16th century. These procedures were based on customary law and may be considered the foundation of modern diplomacy on the continent. The quest for justice and equality in international relations, as well as the necessity for development and peace, are key themes in African diplomacy.
The modern era of African state diplomacy began in the 1960s when the continent's governments gained official independence. During the colonial era, non-state actors such as tribal leaders and traditional rulers played a significant diplomatic role, particularly in British colonies where they mastered dealing with colonial officials through "secret diplomacy".
Another example of African unity and independence in diplomacy is the role of the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS) and its peacekeeping force, the Economic Community Monitoring Group (ECOMOG). Established in 1989, ECOMOG has received global praise for its role in civil conflicts and has contributed to a "Golden period" of diplomacy in Africa.
In recent years, African countries have continued to assert their agency in foreign policy matters, with Kenyan President William Ruto often presenting the "African perspective" at international summits and offering to mediate military conflicts in Niger and Sudan. This has limited the influence of external actors on African security issues and demonstrated the growing capacity for "African solutions to African problems."
South Africa's diplomacy has also undergone significant changes since the beginning of the 1990s, transitioning from a case study in "pariah diplomacy" to a more conventional and integrated member of the international community. The conduct of South African diplomacy is now characterized by summitry and a powerful role for the head of state, with a strong regional focus and emphasis on multilateralism.
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African perspectives in international summits
African diplomacy has a long history, with many centralised governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa employing advanced diplomatic techniques by the 16th century. These procedures were based on customary law and may be considered the foundation of permanent diplomacy. The modern era of African diplomacy, however, is often considered to have begun in the 1960s when the continent's governments gained official independence.
The Lusaka Commonwealth summit in 1979 is cited as a significant moment for African diplomacy, where Zambian diplomats deliberately rivalled British preparatory work in a multilateral environment. This demonstrated the need for gaining allies and briefing interested parties in unpredictable situations.
South African diplomacy has also undergone a notable evolution since the beginning of the 1990s, transitioning from a case study in "pariah diplomacy" to a more conventional yet dynamic approach. The "old" South African diplomacy was characterised by secrecy and a low profile, while the "new" approach embraces summitry and a powerful role for the head of state. This shift also reflects a move from a primarily bilateral focus to a strong emphasis on the multilateral.
African Union (AU) diplomacy has evolved from the old OAU doctrine of non-intervention to the new doctrine of non-indifference. While the AU did not unilaterally intervene in the Darfur conflict in 2004, it did so in association with the UN in 2007, with military peacekeeping forces from Africa, Europe, and elsewhere. The AU's Peace and Security Council, established in 2004, has promoted the "responsibility to protect" norm, which has gained traction through the associated African Standby Force programme.
In conclusion, African perspectives in international summits are increasingly influential, with a focus on regional stewardship, mediation, and limiting external influence on African security issues. African diplomacy continues to evolve, adapting to the changing global landscape and asserting its agency in world affairs.
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African diplomacy and peacekeeping
African diplomacy has a long history, with many centralised governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa employing advanced diplomatic techniques as early as the 16th century. These procedures were often based on customary law and may be considered the foundation of permanent diplomacy on the continent. The quest for justice and equality in international relations, as well as the necessity for development and peace, are key themes in African diplomacy.
The modern era of African diplomacy began in the 1960s when many African nations gained independence. However, it was the 1979 Lusaka Commonwealth summit that marked a turning point, showcasing the diplomatic prowess of African nations in a multilateral environment. Since then, African diplomacy has continued to evolve, with South Africa's transition from an isolated "pariah" state to a fully integrated member of the international community, conducting a "universal foreign policy".
African diplomacy has also played a significant role in peacekeeping initiatives. The Economic Community Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), established in 1989 by the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS), is a notable example of a successful African peacekeeping force. Additionally, the African Union's (AU) Peace and Security Council, established in 2004, promotes norms such as the "responsibility to protect". While the AU initially adhered to a doctrine of non-intervention, this has evolved into a doctrine of non-indifference, as seen in the case of Darfur.
African nations have also been increasingly involved in international summits, offering "African solutions to African problems". Kenya, for instance, has stepped up in matters of regional stewardship, with President William Ruto frequently mediating military conflicts in neighbouring countries. This growing agency in foreign policy has limited the influence of external actors on African security issues.
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Frequently asked questions
African diplomacy is an approach to influencing other governments' and individuals' actions and decisions through discussion, negotiation, and other peaceful means. The practice of diplomacy in Africa has a long history, with centralized governments in pre-colonial eastern and western Africa employing advanced diplomatic techniques as early as the 16th century.
The guiding themes of African diplomacy include the quest for justice and equality in international relations, as well as the necessity for development and peace on the continent.
African diplomacy has evolved over time, with the age of modern African state diplomacy beginning in the 1960s when many countries on the continent gained independence. Pre-colonial African diplomacy resembled medieval European diplomacy, with the negotiation of treaties, the establishment of borders, and the resolution of disputes.
Some examples of African diplomacy in practice include the Economic Community Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), a peacekeeping force established by the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS) in 1989, and the role of Nigerian President Olusegun Obasanjo in addressing the Darfur conflict while serving as Chairman of the African Union from 2004 to 2006.
African diplomacy faces challenges such as the influence of external powers like China and the United States. However, there is also a promising future for African diplomacy, with increasing respect for African diplomatic efforts and the limiting of external actors' influence on African security issues.
