Simone Lawson
Anthropology is a field that studies the origin and development of human societies and cultures. Anthropologists use unique perspectives to conduct their research, which makes the field distinct from related disciplines such as history, sociology, and psychology. The key anthropological perspectives are holism, relativism, comparison, and fieldwork. Cultural relativism, a key component of the anthropological perspective, is the idea that anthropologists should seek to understand a person's beliefs and behaviors from the perspective of their culture rather than their own. This requires anthropologists to approach other cultures with humility and respect while recognizing that every culture has its own unique set of values and beliefs shaped by historical, social, and environmental factors. By embracing this perspective, anthropologists can gain deeper insights into what makes each culture unique while also recognizing shared human experiences across cultures.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Holism | Understanding the whole of humanity and how various aspects of life interact |
| Relativism | Understanding another person's beliefs and behaviours from the perspective of their culture |
| Comparison | Understanding the similarities and differences among living societies and cultural groups |
| Fieldwork | Participant observation, interviews, surveys, and other methods |
| Scientific and humanistic tendencies | Scientific exploration of human biology and culture, and humanistic understanding of universal experiences |
| Cultural adaptations to environments | Understanding how cultural beliefs and practices help humans adapt to their environments |
| Biological and cultural evolution of humans | Studying the origin and development of human societies and cultures |
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What You'll Learn
Holism and cultural relativism
Holism is a key concept in anthropology, referring to the idea that all aspects of human life are interconnected and cannot be understood in isolation. It is derived from the Greek word "holos", meaning "all, entire, total". Holism recognises that human beings are shaped by the mutual influence of genes, culture, and experiences in the world, and that these factors together produce something new that cannot be reduced to its individual parts.
Anthropology's holistic approach involves examining all facets of human life, including biological and cultural factors, to understand the complexity of humanity. It seeks to understand how the many parts of society work together and how they are interrelated. For example, anthropologists might study how changes in one aspect of a culture, such as the introduction of mobile phones, can have cascading effects on other areas, such as infant mortality rates.
Cultural relativism is another essential component of anthropology. It requires anthropologists to approach other cultures with humility and respect, recognising that each culture has its own unique values, beliefs, and practices shaped by historical, social, and environmental factors. By setting aside their personal biases and judgments, anthropologists can gain a deeper understanding of cultural differences while also recognising universal human experiences.
Cultural relativism does not imply that all cultural practices are equally valid or morally acceptable. Instead, it acknowledges that different cultures interpret and interact with the world in distinct ways. For instance, an anthropologist studying arranged marriages may initially find the practice objectionable, but by understanding it within its cultural context, they can gain a deeper insight into the society's values and norms.
Together, holism and cultural relativism enable anthropologists to explore the intricate connections between different human experiences and gain a comprehensive understanding of diverse cultures. They are key perspectives that distinguish anthropology as a unique discipline, allowing for a multifaceted exploration of humanity.
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Comparative and cross-cultural studies
Cultural anthropology, the largest subfield in the United States in terms of PhD graduates, focuses on studying the similarities and differences among living societies and cultural groups. Cultural anthropologists employ immersive fieldwork, living and working with the people they study, to gain a deeper understanding of their perspectives. They set aside their preconceived notions of "normal" and seek to comprehend the cultural context of practices that may initially seem strange or objectionable. This process, known as ethnography, involves participant observation, interviews, and surveys, resulting in research data that helps anthropologists ask increasingly specific questions about the group or the human condition.
Ecological anthropology, also known as environmental anthropology, is the study of cultural adaptations to environments and the relationships between human populations and their biophysical surroundings. This subfield examines how cultural beliefs and practices influence human populations' ability to adapt to their environments and how environments change over time and space.
Linguistic anthropology is another crucial subfield that explores how language influences social life and shapes societies, their social networks, cultural beliefs, and understanding of the world. Linguistic anthropologists document how people use language in their daily social activities, employing methods such as participant observation, audiovisual recording, and interviews. They may also focus on preserving native languages that are at risk of extinction.
By comparing and contrasting different cultures and societies, anthropologists can identify universal human experiences, such as love, loss, joy, and pain, while also recognizing the unique characteristics of each group. This comparative approach allows anthropologists to gain a deeper understanding of the complex web of interdependent values, beliefs, traditions, and practices that shape human lives and interactions within specific cultural contexts.
In summary, comparative and cross-cultural studies in anthropology provide a holistic and nuanced perspective on human societies and cultures. By employing methods such as ethnography and participant observation, anthropologists can gain insights into the similarities and differences among diverse groups, recognize universal human experiences, and appreciate the unique characteristics that make each culture distinct.
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Fieldwork and participant observation
Participant observation is a principal research method in anthropology, where anthropologists embed themselves in communities, creating intimate relationships with the culture under study. This method involves the anthropologist participating in social events and everyday activities, eating the food, and joining in festivities and rituals. They may also learn the language and develop relationships with community members. The goal is to become a part of the culture like a member of that society, all while observing and studying its customs, behaviors, and interactions.
This method requires careful navigation of ethical issues. Researchers must fully inform participants about the purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits of the research, respecting their autonomy to decide whether to participate, continue, or withdraw. Anthropologists must also ensure participants' privacy and confidentiality, removing personal identifiers from research reports. Respect for local customs and norms is crucial, and researchers must be mindful of the cultural practices, traditions, and values of the society they are studying.
Participant observation can last for months or even years and typically involves detailed documentation in notes, recordings, images, and artifacts. The anthropologist analyzes and interprets this data to create a written ethnography, a document about a culture or society. This form of observation provides a deep and holistic understanding of a given culture or society, allowing anthropologists to develop a nuanced perspective on the group's customs, behaviors, and interactions.
In addition to participant observation, there are other fieldwork methods used in anthropology. The observational method, for example, is considered less invasive as the anthropologist minimally integrates themselves into the society they are studying. They gather data through verbal communication and community interaction, conducting open-ended interviews with participants to learn about the history and individuals within the group. This method focuses on understanding how the culture functions through language and communication.
Fieldwork in anthropology can take on various forms, ranging from remote and exotic locations to immediate and familiar contexts. It may involve studying indigenous groups, exploring cultural heritage, or examining social issues such as drug use in a specific community. Anthropologists often adopt a holistic approach, seeking to understand the full range of the human phenomenon and putting their findings into a broad theoretical perspective that includes all of human experience.
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Anthropology of development
Anthropology is the study of humanity, encompassing human bones, behaviours, and social organisation. It is a holistic discipline, considering the full range of the human phenomenon and its biological, historical, cultural, social, and material aspects.
The anthropology of development is a subfield of anthropology that explores the impact of development processes on human societies. It views development from a critical perspective, analysing the social, cultural, economic, and political implications of these changes. This branch of anthropology takes international development and international aid as its primary objects. Here, 'development' refers to the social action taken by institutions, businesses, states, and other agents to modify the economic, technical, political, and social life of a given place, especially in impoverished, formerly colonised regions.
Anthropologists working in this field may be employed by governments and international agencies to provide insights into local cultures and societies, assisting in the design and implementation of development projects. They may also serve as mediators between developers and those being 'developed'. In their role, anthropologists critique and contribute to projects and institutions that create and administer Western projects seeking to improve the economic well-being of the most marginalised and eradicate poverty.
The anthropology of development has been distinguished from development anthropology, which refers to the application of anthropological perspectives to the multidisciplinary branch of development studies. However, this distinction is increasingly considered obsolete. Development anthropology also refers to the role played by anthropologists in executing development projects and facilitating economic growth, which can have positive or negative impacts on the affected communities.
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Feminist anthropology
Theoretically, feminist anthropology is committed to highlighting unique strengths, championing epistemological and methodological approaches that address issues of gender equity, inclusion, and radical possibility. It seeks to provide a more holistic account of phenomena, often studying a particular place, problem, or phenomenon in detail over an extensive period. This involves recognizing that culture is a complex web of interconnected values, beliefs, traditions, and practices that shape people's lives and interactions. By embracing cultural relativism, feminist anthropologists can approach other cultures with humility and respect, recognizing the unique set of values and beliefs shaped by historical, social, and environmental factors.
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Frequently asked questions
Anthropology is the study of the origin and development of human societies and cultures. It is a broad discipline that covers various aspects of the human experience, including human biology, archaeology, cultural anthropology, and linguistics. Anthropologists use unique perspectives, such as holism, relativism, comparison, and fieldwork, to conduct their research and understand the complex interplay of values, beliefs, traditions, and practices that shape a culture.
Anthropologists conduct research through a method called ethnography, which involves participant-observation fieldwork. They immerse themselves in the lives of the people they study, participating in their daily activities while also observing and taking field notes. This inductive process allows them to ask specific questions and gain insights into the human condition. Informants often actively participate in the research, helping anthropologists understand different perspectives.
Cultural relativism is a key concept in anthropology, guiding anthropologists to approach other cultures with humility and respect. It involves setting aside personal biases and preconceived notions to understand the beliefs and practices of a culture within its context. By embracing cultural relativism, anthropologists can avoid ethnocentrism, or the tendency to view one's own culture as superior, and gain a deeper understanding of cultural differences while recognizing universal human experiences.
Anthropologists study a wide range of topics within the broad fields of human biology, archaeology, cultural anthropology, and linguistics. Some examples include the study of kinship patterns, feminist anthropology, ecological anthropology, and the relationship between human biology and culture. They may also explore language and its influence on social life, document endangered languages, or examine cultural adaptations to environments. The research often involves comparing and contrasting different societies and cultural groups to gain a holistic understanding of human diversity.
