Racial Discrimination: A Denial Of Equality And Human Rights

Racial discrimination is a pervasive issue that continues to plague societies worldwide, manifesting in various domains, including employment, housing, criminal justice, and education. It involves the unjust treatment of individuals based on their race, ancestry, ethnic or national origin, skin colour, and hair texture. This discrimination can occur through individuals refusing to interact or conduct business with people from certain racial groups or through explicit government policies that perpetuate segregation and inequitable allocation of resources. While legislative and administrative actions have been implemented to combat racial discrimination, certain discriminatory practices remain legally permissible, underscoring the complex and evolving nature of the issue. The impact of racial discrimination extends beyond the immediate harm caused, as it has been linked to negative mental health outcomes, diminished educational and labour market performance, and overall well-being, particularly among adolescents. Addressing racial discrimination necessitates a multifaceted approach that includes legal remedies, heightened awareness of racial injustices, and the promotion of antiracist beliefs to foster a more equitable society.

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Inequality in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions

Racial discrimination constitutes a negation of equality in employment, housing, credit markets, and consumer interactions.

Employment

Racial discrimination in employment has been a persistent issue, resulting in significant disparities in unemployment and pay between different racial groups. Black workers, for instance, face a 2-to-1 disparity in unemployment compared to white workers, and this gap cannot be explained by differences in education or skill levels. Instead, it is rooted in the United States' long history of racial oppression, which has denied or severely limited Black Americans' access to equal opportunities.

Housing

Housing segregation and discrimination have led to tremendous racial disparities in housing affordability, quality, and stability. People of color are more likely to rent and struggle with the cost due to lower wages and historical discrimination that prevented them from owning homes. This instability increases the risks of eviction and homelessness, leading to negative life outcomes such as food insecurity, poor health, and lower academic achievement.

Credit Markets

While there has been some progress, with an increase in mortgage loans to Blacks and Hispanics between 1989 and 2000, racial discrimination persists in credit markets. Blacks and Hispanics continue to face higher rejection rates and receive less favorable terms than whites with equal credit risk.

Consumer Interactions

Racial discrimination in consumer interactions has been understudied compared to other areas. However, it is recognized that racial discrimination can occur across a wide range of public and private behaviors, including consumer transactions.

Overall, racial discrimination negates equality in these various domains, perpetuating inequality and limiting opportunities for certain racial groups.

Negative health outcomes

Racial discrimination is a key social determinant of health and a driver of racial/ethnic health inequities. Studies have shown that people exposed to racism have poorer health outcomes, particularly concerning mental health. There is a direct link between experiencing racism and negative physical and mental health outcomes.

Research has shown that racial discrimination can lead to negative health outcomes through various pathways. One direct pathway is the biopsychosocial and trauma pathways between experiencing racial discrimination and the subsequent negative health outcomes. Indirect pathways include the impact of racial discrimination on healthcare access and quality. For example, ethnic disparities in socioeconomic status can result in differential access to care, and health provider ethnic bias can influence the quality and outcomes of healthcare interactions.

The stress caused by racial discrimination can also negatively impact health. While exposure to stressful experiences does not always lead to illness, chronic stressors can lead to wear and tear on the body, dysregulating multiple biological systems and leading to premature illness and mortality. The internalization of negative beliefs about one's racial group can also contribute to poor health outcomes, as seen in the study of African American men and cardiovascular disease risk.

In addition, racial discrimination can influence healthcare measures through negative perceptions and expectations of healthcare providers, organizations, and systems, leading to reduced engagement and poorer patient experiences. Discrimination can also impact health outcomes by affecting healthcare-seeking behaviors and adherence to medical treatment, particularly in the management of chronic illnesses.

Racial discrimination can also lead to indirect negative health outcomes through its impact on social and economic factors. For example, discrimination in education and employment can result in reduced opportunities and socioeconomic status, which can then influence access to healthcare and other resources that impact health.

Educational performance

Racial discrimination has a significant impact on educational performance, and this is evident in several ways. Firstly, it is important to acknowledge the persistent racial achievement gap in education. Standardized test scores often show a disparity between the performance of white students and students of colour, with the former consistently achieving higher scores. This is a result of a multitude of factors, including access to educational opportunities and resources.

Minority students often face barriers to equal educational opportunities, which contributes to the achievement gap. Research has identified four key factors that influence student achievement: school size, class size, curriculum, and teacher qualifications. Minority students are less likely to have access to these resources, with smaller schools and smaller class sizes being particularly beneficial for educational outcomes. Additionally, the quality of the curriculum and teacher qualifications play a crucial role, as studies have shown that highly qualified teachers can significantly improve the academic performance of minority and low-income students.

The impact of racial discrimination on educational performance is also evident in the labour market. Racial discrimination in the workplace results in unequal representation, lower pay, decreased professional opportunities, higher unemployment rates, and biased interactions with colleagues or superiors. These factors contribute to a sense of non-belonging and stigmatization among minority individuals, affecting their overall success and long-term performance, including their pursuit of higher education.

Affirmative action policies have been a subject of debate, with some arguing that they provide an unfair advantage to minorities, while others see them as necessary to address ongoing discrimination and protect opportunities for minorities. Education has been shown to increase awareness of discrimination and support for race-targeted job training programs, but it is unclear if it consistently promotes greater support for affirmative action among all racial groups.

The delivery of educational content can also inadvertently contribute to racial discrimination in educational performance. For example, online learning platforms like Khan Academy have been criticized for their lecture-based style of teaching, which may not effectively engage minority students and often fails to address important concepts required for national academic performance measures.

Early childhood education programs, such as Head Start, have shown positive impacts on minority participants, with improvements in academic, social, mental, and physical areas. These programs help to bridge the gap between minority and non-minority students, reducing achievement and opportunity disparities.

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Xenophobia and ethnic and religious intolerance

Racism and racial discrimination constitute a negation of equality, tolerance, and human rights. Xenophobia, ethnic intolerance, and religious intolerance are all forms of racial discrimination that hinder progress for millions of people worldwide. Xenophobia, stemming from the Ancient Greek words "strange, foreign, or alien" and "fear", refers to the fear or dislike of anything perceived as foreign or unfamiliar. It often arises from a perceived conflict between an individual's in-group and out-group, leading to suspicion, discrimination, and even violence against the out-group. This has been particularly evident in the recent migrant crisis, with rising xenophobic attitudes and violence against migrants.

Ethnic intolerance, or ethnic discrimination, involves treating individuals from different ethnic groups unequally, resulting in adverse consequences. This can manifest in various domains, including employment, housing, and education. For example, in Mexico, a history of colonialism has led to persistent discrimination against indigenous Mexicans, with few legal protections in place. Similarly, racial discrimination in the housing market can lead to segregation, indirectly affecting educational opportunities and labour market outcomes.

Religious intolerance, often intertwined with xenophobia and ethnic intolerance, involves discrimination or violence based on an individual's or group's religious beliefs or practices. This can include beliefs such as "Eurabia", which asserts that Europe is being Islamized, or the belief that all citizens in a dominant Orthodox country should follow the majority religion. Terrorist attacks motivated by religious intolerance, xenophobia, and racism are a growing concern for many nations and international organizations like the UN.

To combat these issues, international organizations and governments have taken steps to prioritize the fight against racism and racial discrimination. The United Nations, through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the International Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), has made addressing racism a central part of its agenda. Additionally, the Durban Declaration and Programme of Action (2001) outlined concrete measures to foster a global culture of tolerance, equality, and anti-discrimination.

Harassment, abuse, humiliation, violence, or intimidation

Harassment becomes unlawful when enduring the offensive conduct becomes a prerequisite for continued employment, or when the conduct is severe or pervasive enough to create an intimidating, hostile, or abusive work environment. This is determined from the perspective of a reasonable person. The harasser can be a supervisor, a co-worker, a client, or any individual within the workplace.

Additionally, an employment policy or practice that is universally applied but negatively impacts individuals of a specific race or colour can be deemed illegal if it is not directly relevant to the job or necessary for the business's operation. This form of discrimination is often referred to as "disparate impact discrimination."

Racial discrimination also includes instances where treatment based on factors other than race results in adverse racial consequences, such as promotional practices that generate differential racial outcomes. Furthermore, retaliation against individuals who file a discrimination charge or participate in investigations or lawsuits is also prohibited. Retaliatory actions can take various forms, including harassing behaviour, changes to job duties, and threats of personnel actions.

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