Missionary Diplomacy: Understanding The Intersection Of Religion And Diplomacy

Missionary diplomacy is a term used to describe the policies and practices of the United States in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and China during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson. It refers to the idea that the US had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any non-democratic governments in Latin America. This policy has had a significant impact on American foreign relations, with some arguing that it has resulted in a Protestant worldview being embedded in American foreign policy.

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Woodrow Wilson's missionary diplomacy

Missionary diplomacy was a policy of US President Woodrow Wilson, which held that the US had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any non-democratic Latin American government. It was an expansion of President James Monroe's 1823 Monroe Doctrine.

Wilson, elected in 1913, was a progressive reformer. He was also a former college professor and governor of New Jersey. He had expected to focus on domestic reform, assuming that foreign policy would be a secondary concern. However, he soon became deeply involved in foreign affairs, repudiating the Dollar Diplomacy of his predecessors. Dollar Diplomacy had sought to promote stability in Latin America and the Caribbean to create investment opportunities for American companies. While Wilson supported private American investment, he believed that the promotion of democracy was a higher priority.

Wilson's missionary diplomacy was a label often applied to his policies and practices in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. He believed that Washington had a moral duty to intervene in these regions to spread democracy and maintain order. This belief led to the dispatch of troops to Mexico and Haiti. Wilson also applied this policy to China, reflecting his desire to promote democracy and stability globally.

The influence of Wilson's ideas on American foreign policy has been significant and lasting. His principles, known as Wilsonianism, advocated for the spread of democracy, the opening of global markets, and the creation of an international organisation dedicated to maintaining peace, with the US taking an active global role. This approach reached its peak with America's entry into World War I, with Wilson declaring, "The world must be made safe for democracy."

The Protestant worldview in American foreign policy

The Protestant worldview has long been considered a dominant force in shaping American foreign policy. This influence, often termed "Protestant Deformation", is not derived from the original Protestant Reformation but rather from successive departures from it, creating a unique heresy. This deformation has been a driving force behind the spread of American ideas of liberal democracy, free markets, individual freedom, and human rights globally.

The foreign policies of Teddy Roosevelt and his cousin Franklin D. Roosevelt, for example, embodied an intersection between two distinct Protestant worldviews. Teddy, a Dutch Reformed moralist, was theologically ambivalent, while FDR was a believing Episcopalian, albeit less consistent in church attendance. Both, however, straddled the Jacksonian/elitist divide, which continues to influence American foreign policy.

Michael Doran, in his work, highlights the religious nature of divisions over American foreign policy, arguing that the primary schism is between Protestant modernists and fundamentalists. The latter group, rooted in Jacksonian democracy, is characterized by a distrust of cosmopolitan WASP elites and a strong sense of American exceptionalism and nationalism. These conservative Protestants, often Calvinists, hold a distinct set of political beliefs, including low expectations of the state and a zealous guarding of their liberties.

Doran further contends that the mission of the United States is not merely to preserve liberty until Judgment Day but to actively employ its military and economic might to guide the world toward universal brotherhood. This notion of "missionary cosmopolitanism" has informed post-World War II foreign policy, including the development of the United Nations and opposition to Zionism.

The term "missionary diplomacy" is often associated with the policies of US President Woodrow Wilson, particularly in Latin America, Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. Wilson's administration believed in the moral responsibility to deny recognition to non-democratic governments in Latin America, reflecting an expansion of the Monroe Doctrine. This approach, driven by a sense of moral compulsion, aimed to promote democracy and peace in other nations.

Religion and 19th-century American foreign relations

The term "missionary diplomacy" is often used to describe the policies and practices of the United States in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921). Wilson believed that the US had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any non-democratic Latin American government, in what was an expansion of President James Monroe's 1823 Monroe Doctrine.

However, the concept of missionary diplomacy extends beyond this and has played a crucial role in shaping 19th-century American foreign relations. In her book, "Missionary Diplomacy: Religion and Nineteenth-Century American Foreign Relations," Emily Conroy-Krutz explores the influence of US Protestant missions on foreign affairs during this period.

From the 1810s through the 1920s, Protestant missionaries positioned themselves as key experts in the development of American relations in Asia, Africa, the Pacific, and the Middle East. They served as consuls, translators, and even influenced the State Department's actions. This power dynamic shifted over time as more Americans began to question the role of missionaries and their impact on American diplomacy.

The early 19th century saw debates among historians regarding the nature of American religiosity, with a focus on secularism, deism, traditional religious practices, and the emergence of evangelical forms following the Great Awakening. The Second Great Awakening profoundly impacted American religious history, with evangelicalism becoming a dominant force in the nation's religious life by 1859. This led to the growth of denominations such as the Methodists, Baptists, and Presbyterians, who also engaged in overseas missionary activities.

The influence of religion on foreign relations is a complex topic that requires an intersectional approach to understanding its impact. The multiplicity of religious influences, including theologies, creeds, rituals, and the intersection of sacred and secular ideas, shapes the decisions of policymakers and diplomats. The study of religion and its influence on foreign policy is a growing field, with more scholars and policymakers recognizing its importance in understanding international relations.

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Economic explanations for missionary diplomacy

Missionary diplomacy was a foreign policy approach adopted by US President Woodrow Wilson, which held that the US had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any Latin American government that was not democratic. This policy was an expansion of President James Monroe's 1823 Monroe Doctrine and was applied to the US's practices in Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and China during Wilson's presidency (1913-1921).

While missionary diplomacy was driven by moral and democratic ideals, there were also economic explanations and motivations underpinning this policy approach. Here are some paragraphs elaborating on these economic factors:

Economic Interests of American Entrepreneurs

American businesses had long sought to increase trade, access new markets and raw materials, and expand their investment fields. Latin America, during the Wilson administration, presented attractive opportunities for American entrepreneurs to advance these economic goals. Wilson's missionary diplomacy, therefore, facilitated the work of these economic interests and provided diplomatic protection for American businesses operating in the region.

Personal Economic Interests of Diplomats

Some American diplomats stationed in Latin America were influenced by their personal economic interests. For example, Henry Lane Wilson in Mexico and James Sullivan in the Dominican Republic were accused of being dominated by their economic motivations rather than the democratic ideals espoused by President Wilson.

Economic Diplomacy: Dollar Diplomacy

Wilson's predecessor, William Howard Taft, had pursued a policy of "dollar diplomacy," which involved using American financial power to secure diplomatic and economic advantage abroad. While Wilson's missionary diplomacy marked a shift towards moral and democratic ideals, some historians argue that economic considerations continued to play a role in shaping US foreign policy during the Wilson administration.

Impact on Trade and Investment

Missionary diplomacy, by promoting democratic values and stability in Latin America, was seen as a way to foster a favourable environment for American trade and investment in the region. Wilson believed that democratic governments in Latin America would be more conducive to American economic interests than undemocratic regimes.

Yankeephobia and Economic Competition

The economic aspects of missionary diplomacy contributed to "Yankeephobia" in Latin America. This term refers to the growing fear and resentment towards the United States in the region. Latin American countries became suspicious of the United States' economic motives and perceived its diplomatic interventions as a form of economic imperialism. This aura of hostility presented a challenge for interwar presidents and the State Department, who sought to dispel these tensions.

Missionary diplomacy in practice

Missionary diplomacy was a policy of US President Woodrow Wilson, which held that Washington had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any non-democratic government in Latin America. It was an expansion of President James Monroe's 1823 Monroe Doctrine.

In practice, this policy manifested in several ways. Firstly, it led to the entanglement of Protestant missionaries with American diplomacy. Missionaries played influential roles in Asia, the Middle East, and the Pacific Islands—regions that were already of interest to them before they became a priority for the state. They established new mission fields and then demanded government support and protection, serving as consuls and translators for the American government as it defined its relationships with foreign powers.

Secondly, missionaries influenced the government to articulate new conceptions of the rights of US citizens abroad and the role of the US as a champion of humanitarianism and religious freedom. This resulted in a Protestant worldview being embedded in American foreign policy, with missionary definitions of civilization, morality, and good government shaping treaties and diplomatic negotiations for generations.

Thirdly, missionary diplomacy contributed to the economic goals of American entrepreneurs who sought to increase trade, find new markets and raw materials, and expand investment fields, particularly in Latin America. While there is debate about whether Wilson's central objective was to advance these economic interests, he certainly facilitated them and provided diplomatic protection for American businesses.

Finally, missionary diplomacy had significant implications for US relations with Latin America. Wilson's objectives of promoting democracy and constitutionalism in the region were not achieved, and his methods, which included the use of military force, were paradoxical and interventionist. This approach contributed to "Yankee-phobia" in Latin America and damaged relations with countries like Mexico.

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