Malcolm Rivera
Political campaigns are organized efforts to influence decision-making processes within a specific group, with modern campaigns often focusing on general elections and candidates for head of state or government. Campaigns aim to create a lasting impression on voters by frequently repeating talking points about policy issues. While campaigns typically involve promoting one's own ideas and policies, some may resort to negative campaigning, or trash talk, to discredit and belittle opponents. This practice involves spreading negative information or mudslinging about opposing candidates, leveraging emotions, and treating elections as a game to be won. Negative campaigning has been a long-standing tactic, with some arguing it is necessary to inform voters about their choices. However, it is controversial, with research suggesting it can demobilize voters and affect election outcomes.
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What You'll Learn
Push polls
Political parties may also use push polls to test the effectiveness of negative campaign messages or advertisements. In some cases, push polls may be conducted by independent groups or organisations with an interest in the election outcome.
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Attack ads
In political campaigns, an attack ad is an advertisement designed to launch a personal attack against an opposing candidate or political party. Attack ads are a type of negative campaigning or smear campaigning, and they are often disseminated via mass media. Attack ads generally involve unfairly criticising an opponent's political platform, usually by pointing out faults or using innuendos. They can also be character attacks, attempting to change the viewer's perception of a candidate's character, or they can attack the candidate's policies or political ideas.
Despite their prevalence, attack ads are generally disliked by the voting public. Studies show that 82% of Americans dislike attack ads, and 53% believe that the ethics and values of election campaigns have worsened since 1985. However, voters are open to candidates criticising each other if the issues in question are deemed "appropriate". For example, 80.7% of Virginia voters felt it was fair to criticise an opponent for "talking one way and voting another", while only 7.7% felt it was fair to attack a candidate for the behaviour of their family members.
The effectiveness of attack ads is questionable. While some believe that negative information is more influential than positive information, research suggests that deluges of negative advertising do little to change voters' minds and can even backfire. When voters perceive ads as unfair or manipulative, they are less likely to support the candidate behind the ad. Additionally, repeated exposure to political attack ads can lead to "psychological reactance", causing voters to behave opposite to the ad's intention.
It is worth noting that not all negative campaigning takes the form of attack ads. Contrast ads, for instance, present positive information about the candidate alongside negative information about the opponent. Push polls are another form of negative campaigning, disguising attacks as telephone polls.
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Contrast ads
Political campaigns are organised efforts to influence decision-making processes within a specific group. In democratic societies, these often refer to electoral campaigns, where representatives are chosen or referendums are decided. Campaigns often face a difficult decision about whether to \"go negative\" and directly attack their opponent. This type of advertising focuses on highlighting flaws, shortcomings, or failures and often uses fear and emotional appeals to create a negative image of the opponent.
However, there is also a concept of "contrast ads" in political campaigns, which is seen as a more ethical and balanced approach. Unlike attack ads, contrast ads contain information about both the candidate and the opponent, with positive information about the candidate and negative information about the opponent. They highlight the candidate's strengths and the opponent's weaknesses, allowing voters to make an informed decision based on the facts. This type of advertising often includes comparisons of voting records, policy positions, and personal backgrounds. The goal is to present the candidate as the better choice for voters without appearing overly aggressive.
Research has shown that negative campaigning can demobilize voters and that negative ads are more effective at grabbing viewers' attention but can also alienate them. In contrast, contrast ads are seen as more positive and constructive, providing a fuller picture and building credibility. They allow campaigns to keep the focus on their strengths and ensure that their key points are front and centre.
Overall, contrast ads are a powerful tool in political campaigns, offering a way to critique opponents while promoting positive attributes and providing a clear and compelling message to undecided voters.
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Negative campaigning's impact on Democrats vs Republicans
Negative campaigning, a strategy employed by political candidates and parties, involves deliberately spreading negative information about an opponent to tarnish their public image. This strategy has been used in various countries, including the United States, France, and Argentina, and has evolved over time, leveraging modern communication tools such as television, radio, and social media.
The impact of negative campaigning on Democrats and Republicans in the United States has been studied, and some interesting differences have been observed. Research suggests that negative campaigning has a greater impact on Democrats than on Republicans. This is because Republican base voters tend to be more loyal to their party, regardless of the campaign tone, while Democrats are more susceptible to being influenced by negative messaging, potentially staying home or even switching sides to vote for a Republican. This dynamic gives Republicans an advantage when employing negative campaigning strategies.
However, it is important to note that the effectiveness of negative campaigning depends on various factors, including the strength and intensity of the negative messages and the ideological context of the campaign. For example, if a candidate is leading in the polls, they are more likely to rely on positive messages to maintain their support, while challengers might resort to negative campaigning to try to catch up. Additionally, negative campaigning can backfire if it contradicts the values of the target audience or if it is perceived as overly personal or dishonest.
An example of negative campaigning backfiring can be seen in the 2008 US Senate race in North Carolina, where Republican incumbent Elizabeth Dole attempted to tie her Democratic challenger, Kay Hagan, to atheism. The ad questioned Hagan's religion and included a voice saying, "There is no God!" over her picture. However, the ad produced a backlash, and Hagan responded with a forceful ad affirming her religious beliefs and accusing Dole of diverting attention from economic issues. As a result, Hagan's lead in the polls doubled, and she won the race by a significant margin.
In contrast, there have been instances where negative campaigning has worked in favour of Republicans. For example, during the 2016 United States presidential election, Donald Trump, the Republican candidate, employed negative campaigning tactics against his Democratic opponent, Hillary Clinton. Trump used nicknames to belittle Clinton and questioned her crisis management abilities. These strategies may have contributed to his eventual victory in the election.
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Trash talk
Political campaigns that trash opponents are often referred to as negative campaigning or trash-talking. This strategy involves spreading negative information or "mudslinging" about an opponent to warn voters of potential dangers or deficiencies. While this approach can be effective in certain contexts, research suggests that negative campaigning is generally ineffective at reducing support for the opponent and may even backfire, driving down overall voter turnout.
Negative campaigning has evolved over time, with modern campaigns employing sophisticated tools and data analysis to target potential voters and influence their decisions. The increasing use of social media and digital platforms has also amplified the reach and impact of negative messages.
There are different types of negative campaigning techniques, including attack ads, contrast ads, push polls, and dirty tricks. Attack ads solely focus on negative information about the opponent, while contrast ads present positive information about the candidate alongside negative information about the opponent. Push polls are disguised as telephone polls, asking leading questions to spread negative impressions about an opponent. Dirty tricks encompass a range of unethical tactics used to undermine an opponent.
The effectiveness of negative campaigning depends on various factors, including the specific political context, the target audience, and the values of the group being addressed. Some studies suggest that negative campaigning can demobilize voters, especially when it reinforces pre-existing beliefs or aligns with central issues that resonate with the audience.
In recent years, there has been a notable increase in political trash talk, with some politicians embracing a more combative and polarizing style. This trend has been influenced by figures such as former US President Donald Trump, whose frequent references to sports and focus on winning have contributed to a win-at-all-costs mindset among partisans.
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Frequently asked questions
Such campaigns are called negative political campaigns or negative campaigning.
Negative campaigning can take the form of attack ads, which only contain negative information about the opponent. Contrast ads, which contain positive information about the candidate and negative information about the opponent, are another example. Push polls, which are attacks disguised as telephone polls, and dirty tricks are also common in negative political campaigns.
The effectiveness of negative campaigning is relative to the target group and their values. Some research suggests that negative campaigning demobilizes voters, while other research suggests that negative campaigning can be more effective at driving memory and reinforcement of pre-existing beliefs.
In the 1828 US presidential campaign, supporters of John Quincy Adams used "The Coffin Handbills" against Andrew Jackson. In 2008, Hillary Clinton's "3 a.m. phone call" ad questioned her opponent Barack Obama's crisis management abilities. During the 2016 election, Trump supporters routinely chanted "Lock her up!" in reference to Hillary Clinton.
Negative campaigning can be motivated by an honest desire to warn others against a rival or by dishonest ideas about how to win against an honest rival. Sponsors of negative campaigns often justify their actions by claiming that the public needs to know about the opponent.
