Omar Bennett
The glass ceiling is a metaphor for the invisible barrier that prevents certain individuals from advancing into senior management positions. The term was coined by Marilyn Loden during a speech at a 1978 Women's Exposition in New York. While the term originally referred to women, it has since been broadened to include racial minorities and other underrepresented groups. The glass ceiling is not an official policy, but rather a result of implicit biases and societal issues that impact the ability of women and minorities to advance in their careers. Discriminatory factors constituting the glass ceiling include gender stereotypes, societal expectations, and biases that favour men over women. Non-discriminatory factors include a lack of education and skills, as well as the need for better company policies to support diversity and inclusion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Discriminatory factors | Sexism and racism |
| Non-discriminatory factors | Gender roles, stereotypes, cultural factors, organisational factors, personal factors, socio-cultural factors, political factors, sexual harassment |
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What You'll Learn
Sticky floors: women are less likely to start climbing the job ladder
The concept of "sticky floors" is integral to understanding the discriminatory and non-discriminatory factors constituting the glass ceiling. "Sticky floors" refer to the phenomenon where women are less likely to initiate their ascent up the career ladder. This is often due to discriminatory employment patterns that confine workers, predominantly women, to the lower rungs of the job hierarchy, with low mobility and unseen barriers to career progression.
The concept of "sticky floors" was first introduced by Booth and colleagues in a study published in the European Economic Review. Their research provided empirical evidence of the existence of "sticky floors" in countries such as Australia, Belgium, Italy, Thailand, and the United States. This phenomenon is closely linked to gender disparities at the bottom of the wage distribution.
Several factors contribute to the persistence of "sticky floors" and hinder women's advancement in their careers. One significant factor is gender stereotypes and societal expectations. In many cultures, women are expected to embody specific traits, such as being polite, accommodating, and nurturing, which often directs them towards caretaking roles. Consequently, women shoulder a disproportionate burden of household chores and childcare responsibilities, creating additional stress and pressure as they strive to ascend the corporate ladder.
Another factor perpetuating "sticky floors" is the existence of gender biases and discrimination in the workplace. Women may encounter implicit or explicit biases that hinder their opportunities for advancement. This includes the maternal wall, where stereotypes regarding women's roles in the family and the expectation of taking time off for childbirth and childcare place them at a disadvantage compared to men. Additionally, the motherhood penalty highlights the pay gap between mothers and non-mothers, further exacerbating the challenges faced by women attempting to advance their careers.
Furthermore, organisational and cultural factors play a significant role in perpetuating "sticky floors." Women may encounter barriers within their organisations that impede their advancement, such as a lack of equal opportunity policies or a company culture that fails to support and nurture female employees. Additionally, societal norms and stereotypes that attribute management roles primarily to men create an unseen barrier, making it more challenging for women to attain senior positions.
To address the issue of "sticky floors," organisations can implement various measures. These include enlightenment campaigns, embracing equal employment opportunities, and incorporating diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) initiatives. By actively working towards eliminating gender biases, providing flexible work arrangements, and promoting work-life balance, organisations can contribute to breaking down the barriers that hinder women's career advancement.
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Sexism and gender stereotypes
Women are often expected to be polite, accommodating, and nurturing, which pushes them towards caretaking roles. Juggling household responsibilities with work creates added stress and pressure for women as they compete for jobs with men who are not faced with the same expectations. Gender bias, the preference for one gender over another, also plays a role in perpetuating the glass ceiling.
Stereotypes related to women's roles in the family, such as the expectation to take time off for childbirth and childcare, place women at a disadvantage in their careers compared to men. This phenomenon is known as the "maternal wall" or the "motherhood penalty", highlighting the pay gap between mothers and non-mothers. Gender stereotypes also influence how leaders are chosen by employers, with a majority of Americans perceiving women as more emotional and men as more aggressive. The "gender status belief" claims that men are more competent and intelligent than women, which is used to justify their higher positions in the career hierarchy.
The glass ceiling is not an official corporate policy but is instead made up of unwritten norms and implicit biases that negatively impact women's ability to advance in the workforce. These biases are often unconscious and entrenched in organisational hierarchies, making the glass ceiling difficult to detect and address.
To break the glass ceiling, organisations can implement measures such as blind screening during recruitment or promotions to reduce bias, provide training programs about unconscious bias, and promote work-life balance by offering flexible working arrangements and family-friendly benefits.
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Intersectionality: women of colour face a concrete ceiling
While the glass ceiling metaphor is often used to describe the invisible barrier that prevents women from advancing into senior management positions, it is important to recognize that women of colour face an even tougher barrier, aptly termed the "concrete ceiling." This term was coined by Jasmine Babers in 2016 to highlight the significant challenges faced by women of colour in achieving career success.
The concrete ceiling underscores the concept of "double jeopardy," where women of colour must navigate both racism and sexism in their careers. They are disadvantaged by the intersection of two historically marginalized identities, experiencing discrimination and bias from both angles. This double jeopardy is further exacerbated by societal expectations and stereotypes associated with gender roles, childbearing, and motherhood, which disproportionately impact women of colour.
The maternal wall, or the motherhood penalty, refers to the disadvantages and stereotypes that women face regarding their roles in the family and the need to take time off for childbirth and childcare. These factors often place women, especially women of colour, at a significant disadvantage in their careers compared to men. The concrete ceiling is further reinforced by the pay gap, or pink-collar phenomenon, where roles typically held by women are generally paid less than those held by men.
Additionally, the glass cliff comes into play when women of colour are promoted to higher-level management positions during a company's decline, increasing their risk of failure. This phenomenon is not limited to women of colour but also affects other underrepresented groups. The glass cliff underscores the challenges faced by individuals from marginalized communities when they attain leadership roles, often facing greater obstacles and scrutiny than their male or non-minority counterparts.
To shatter the concrete ceiling, companies must proactively address the intersectional biases and barriers faced by women of colour. This includes implementing measures such as blind screening during recruitment and promotions to reduce bias, offering flexible work arrangements and family-friendly benefits, and providing training programs to address unconscious biases and promote inclusion. By taking these steps, organizations can create a more inclusive and equitable environment that empowers women of colour to thrive and succeed.
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Maternal wall: stereotypes and motherhood penalty
The “maternal wall” is a term that refers to the various stereotypes and forms of discrimination faced by working mothers, expectant mothers, and mothers seeking employment. The maternal wall is a significant barrier that prevents many women from even approaching the metaphorical "glass ceiling".
The maternal wall bias is a social dynamic that affects women in the workplace who are mothers or are expecting to become mothers. It is characterised by assumptions that women who are mothers are either uncommitted to their jobs if they take time off to care for their families or cold and uncaring if they don't. According to surveys, around 50% of women report that their colleagues view them as less competent and committed after they have children. This bias is a primary reason why women often do not advance into leadership roles. As a result of this bias, women are passed over for important assignments, receive less pay and fewer promotions, and are criticised if they don't take a long maternity leave.
The maternal wall is also associated with the "mommy track" and the “motherhood penalty”. The motherhood penalty refers to the pay gap between mothers and non-mothers. Research has found a wage penalty for motherhood, with a 4% penalty for one child and a 12% penalty for two or more children, even after controlling for factors such as education and work experience. The "mommy track" refers to the negative consequences of maternal wall discrimination, such as demotion or termination due to maternity leave, which forces women into lower-paying jobs.
The maternal wall is influenced by employer stereotypes and gender expectations. According to the Stereotype Content Model (SCM), mothers are stereotyped as high in warmth but low in competence. This combination elicits feelings of pity and a paternalistic response, which can result in discrimination. The Expectation States Theory also suggests that common cultural stereotypes attach greater status and competence to one category over another, resulting in discrimination. For example, the stereotype of women as primary caretakers can lead to discrimination when they become pregnant or take on caregiving responsibilities.
The maternal wall is a significant barrier that affects not only women but also individuals with caregiving responsibilities, such as those caring for sick parents or spouses. It contributes to the “sticky floors” phenomenon, where women are less likely to climb the job ladder due to discriminatory employment patterns that keep them in lower-ranking positions with low mobility and invisible barriers to advancement. The maternal wall, along with the glass ceiling, perpetuates gender inequality in the workplace and hinders women's career progression.
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Lack of diversity and inclusion in company culture
The glass ceiling is a metaphor for the invisible barrier that prevents certain individuals from advancing into senior management or executive positions within an organization or industry. While the term originally referred primarily to women, it has since been broadened to include racial and other minority groups. The glass ceiling is not an official policy but is instead a result of implicit biases and societal issues that impact the advancement of marginalized groups in the workforce.
A lack of diversity and inclusion in company culture is a significant factor in the persistence of the glass ceiling. Firstly, companies with a homogeneous culture are less successful in their decision-making than those with a diverse workforce. This negatively impacts the company's bottom line and overall performance. Secondly, gender roles and stereotypes are significant contributors to the glass ceiling. In American culture, for example, women are often expected to be accommodating and nurturing, which pushes them towards caretaking roles. This creates additional stress and pressure for women as they attempt to climb the corporate ladder while also juggling household responsibilities. Gender bias, the tendency to prefer one gender over another, further exacerbates this issue.
The perpetuation of sexist stereotypes is another critical factor in the glass ceiling phenomenon. Stereotypes such as the "gender status belief," which claims that men are more competent and intelligent than women, influence how leaders are chosen by employers and how employees of different sexes are treated. This results in qualified women being denied the opportunity to compete for or win decision-making positions. Additionally, the maternal wall places women at a disadvantage in their careers compared to men. Stereotypes related to a woman's role in the family and the need to take time off for childbirth and childcare contribute to what is known as the "motherhood penalty," which refers to the pay gap between mothers and non-mothers.
Furthermore, the glass ceiling is often a result of individual, organizational, and cultural factors that affect women's career development. For example, the lack of education and skills among women has been identified as a significant impediment to their participation in the workforce. Additionally, organizational gender culture, personal factors, socio-cultural factors, political factors, and sexual harassment have all been identified as critical factors leading to the low representation of women in top positions. Finally, the glass ceiling is also influenced by societal issues such as racism and sexism. Women of color, in particular, face a "concrete ceiling," a term coined by Jasmine Babers to describe the significantly tougher barrier they face due to the intersection of racism and sexism.
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Frequently asked questions
The glass ceiling is a metaphor that refers to the invisible barrier that prevents certain individuals from advancing within their organisation, particularly when pursuing senior management, leadership, and executive roles.
Discriminatory factors include gender and racial inequalities, as well as biases entrenched in organisational hierarchies. These biases are often implicit and based on stereotypes and societal expectations of gender roles.
Non-discriminatory factors include organisational culture, personal factors, socio-cultural factors, political factors, and sexual harassment.
Women in the workforce are most affected by the glass ceiling, particularly women of colour, disabled women, LGBTQ+ women, women with lower incomes, and women belonging to multiple underrepresented groups.
