Omar Bennett
The US Constitution was signed on September 17, 1787, by 38 delegates, with George Reed signing on behalf of John Dickinson of Delaware, bringing the total number of signatures to 39. The Constitution superseded the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, on March 4, 1789. The Articles of Confederation gave the Confederation Congress the power to make rules and request funds from the states, but it had no enforcement powers, couldn't regulate commerce, or print money. The states' disputes over territory, war pensions, taxation, and trade threatened to tear the young country apart. The Constitutional Convention assembled in Philadelphia in May 1787, with General George Washington unanimously elected as its president. The delegates engaged in heated debates for three months, ultimately deciding to redesign the government. A Committee of Detail was appointed to put the decisions in writing, and a Committee of Style and Arrangement condensed 23 articles into seven in less than four days. The process of creating the US Constitution involved navigating complex political and ideological differences, with some delegates expressing dissatisfaction with the final document.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year | 1787 |
| Month | May |
| Location | Philadelphia |
| Number of delegates | 39 |
| Number of states represented | 12 |
| Number of articles | 7 |
| Previous constitution | Articles of Confederation |
| Number of amendments | 2 |
| Federalists' view on a Bill of Rights | Opposed |
| Anti-Federalists' view on a Bill of Rights | In favour |
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What You'll Learn
The failure of the Articles of Confederation
The Articles of Confederation, America's first constitution, was sent to the 13 states for consideration in 1777. It was fully ratified and put into effect in 1781, but its reign was brief. The Articles gave the Confederation Congress the power to make rules and request funds from the states, but it had no enforcement powers, couldn’t collect taxes, regulate commerce, print money, or enforce treaties.
The Articles of Confederation failed due to several key reasons:
Lack of a Strong Central Government
The Articles established a confederacy, placing sovereign power in the hands of the states. This led to a series of limitations that rendered the Articles ineffective. The central government lacked the power to regulate trade effectively, with each state having its own agenda and import and export policies. The central government also couldn't collect taxes to fund its operations, maintain a military, or back its currency.
Difficulty in Passing Legislation
The Articles required the approval of 9 out of 13 states to pass any laws, making it challenging to pass legislation affecting all states. This was further compounded by the requirement of unanimous consent from all 13 states to amend the Articles, which was nearly impossible given the rivalries between states.
Economic Disorganization
The lack of a strong central government led to economic disorganization and financial hardship. By the late 1780s, America struggled to compete economically and pay off debts from the Revolutionary War. The disorganization and competition between the states further exacerbated these economic issues.
Inability to Settle Revolutionary War-era Debts
Without the power to tax or regulate trade effectively, the central government was unable to address the significant debts owed to European countries and investors. This left the United States in an economic crisis by 1787.
States' Conduct of Foreign Policies
Technically, the role of conducting foreign policies fell to the central government. However, the Confederation government lacked the domestic and international power to enforce this, leading to states conducting their own foreign policies.
The failures of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger central government became increasingly apparent, leading to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, which resulted in the creation of the United States Constitution.
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The Constitutional Convention
Madison and Alexander Hamilton, a young lawyer from New York, issued a report from a meeting in Annapolis, calling upon Congress to summon delegates from all the states to meet. The delegates gathered in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation, but by mid-June, they had decided to completely redesign the government. There was little agreement on what form it would take, and the delegates were wary of centralised power, loyal to their states, and held differing interests and views.
After three months of heated debate, a Committee of Detail was appointed to put the decisions in writing. A Committee of Style and Arrangement then condensed 23 articles into seven in less than four days. On September 17, 1787, 38 delegates signed the Constitution, with George Reed signing on behalf of John Dickinson of Delaware, bringing the total to 39 signatures. Several delegates were disappointed with the result, believing it to be a series of compromises, and three refused to sign. Benjamin Franklin, while also having reservations, accepted the Constitution, stating:
> "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them... I am not sure that it is not the best."
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The Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
The Federalists and Anti-Federalists were two opposing political factions that emerged during the formation of the United States Constitution in the 1780s. The Federalists believed in a strong central government, arguing that it was necessary for the country's success and could address the challenges facing the young nation. They held nationalist beliefs and thought that class distinctions mattered, with the wealthiest and most educated people in charge. John Adams and Alexander Hamilton were famous Federalists.
On the other hand, the Anti-Federalists feared that a powerful central government would threaten individual freedoms and states' rights. They opposed the ratification of the Constitution because it lacked a bill of rights and reminded them of the monarchy they had recently overthrown in the Revolutionary War. Thomas Jefferson and Samuel Adams were prominent Anti-Federalists.
The Federalists played a crucial role in shaping the new US Constitution in 1787, which, according to Anti-Federalists, strengthened the national government at the expense of the states and the people. The Anti-Federalists never organised efficiently across all thirteen states, so they had to fight the ratification at each state convention. They were successful in forcing the first Congress under the new Constitution to establish a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties.
The ratification debate was intense, and the Federalists ultimately won when the new Constitution became the official governing document in 1788. However, the Anti-Federalists rallied to ratify the Bill of Rights in 1791, ensuring that the Constitution included ten amendments protecting individual liberties. The debates and compromises made during this period laid the foundation for the US government and resulted in one of the longest-lived and most emulated constitutions in the world.
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The ratification process
The Constitutional Convention, which drafted the Constitution, assembled in Philadelphia in May 1787, with General George Washington as its unanimously elected president. The delegates initially intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, which was America's first constitution. However, by mid-June, they had decided to create a new government altogether. The delegates debated fiercely over three hot summer months, ultimately crafting compromises to represent their diverse interests and views.
A Committee of Detail was appointed to put these decisions in writing, and a Committee of Style and Arrangement condensed the articles into a final form. On September 17, 1787, 38 delegates signed the Constitution, with George Reed signing on behalf of John Dickinson of Delaware, bringing the total signatures to 39.
The founders set the terms for ratifying the Constitution, bypassing the state legislatures due to concerns about relinquishing power to a national government. Instead, they called for special ratifying conventions in each state. Ratification by 9 of the 13 states was required to enact the new government. The Federalists, who supported a robust central government, faced opposition from the Anti-Federalists, who favoured a weaker central authority and demanded a Bill of Rights. The ratification campaign was closely contested, and a compromise in Massachusetts helped secure victory for the Federalists.
The US Constitution superseded the Articles of Confederation on March 4, 1789, establishing a federal government with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The ratification process, though challenging, resulted in a durable framework for the United States government that has endured and been emulated worldwide.
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The final document
The Constitutional Convention assembled in Philadelphia in May 1787, with delegates from the states shutting the windows of the State House and swearing secrecy. Although they had gathered to revise the Articles of Confederation, by mid-June they had decided to completely redesign the government, with little agreement on what form it would take. The delegates appointed a Committee of Detail to put its decisions in writing, and a Committee of Style and Arrangement condensed 23 articles into seven in less than four days.
On September 17, 1787, 38 delegates signed the Constitution, with George Reed signing for John Dickinson of Delaware, bringing the total number of signatures to 39. Benjamin Franklin, addressing the convention, summed up the sentiments of several delegates: "There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them." He accepted the Constitution because "I expect no better and [...] am not sure that it is not the best". The advocates of the Constitution sought unanimous support from all twelve states represented in the convention, and their accepted formula for the closing endorsement was "Done in Convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present".
The founders set the terms for ratifying the Constitution, bypassing the state legislatures and calling for special ratifying conventions in each state. Ratification by 9 of the 13 states enacted the new government, but only 6 of 13 states initially reported a pro-Constitution majority. The Federalists, who believed in a strong central government, needed to convert at least three states, while the Anti-Federalists opposed the Constitution due to its resemblance to the overthrown government and its lack of a bill of rights. The "vote now, amend later" compromise helped secure victory in Massachusetts and eventually in the final holdout states.
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Frequently asked questions
After the Revolutionary War, the Articles of Confederation, which was America's first constitution, gave the Confederation Congress the power to make rules and request funds from the states, but it lacked enforcement powers, couldn't regulate commerce, or print money. This led to disputes among the states over territory, war pensions, taxation, and trade, threatening to tear the young nation apart.
James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and George Washington were instrumental in convening the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787. Benjamin Franklin also played a significant role by submitting a plan for a united colonial confederation to the Continental Congress in 1775, initiating a national debate on the creation of an American republic.
The Constitutional Convention, comprising delegates from various states, engaged in heated debates over the summer of 1787. A Committee of Detail was appointed to put their decisions in writing, and a Committee of Style and Arrangement condensed the articles into a final form. On September 17, 1787, 38 delegates signed the Constitution, with George Reed signing on behalf of an absent delegate, bringing the total signatures to 39.
There were differing views between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists. The Federalists supported a strong central government, while the Anti-Federalists opposed it due to concerns about centralized power and the absence of a bill of rights. The ratification process was challenging, and it required the compromise of "vote now, amend later" to secure enough states' support.
The US Constitution superseded the Articles of Confederation and established a federal government with three branches: the legislative, consisting of Congress; the executive, led by the President; and the judicial, comprising the Supreme Court and federal courts. It addressed the weaknesses of the previous government structure and provided a framework for the nation's governance.
