Women's Suffrage: The Constitution's Original Stance

The original U.S. Constitution did not explicitly mention voting rights. However, the 19th Amendment, ratified in 1920, states that the right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. This amendment was the culmination of a long and arduous struggle by women's suffrage supporters, dating back to the mid-19th century, who faced fierce resistance and often met with harassment and physical abuse. While the 19th Amendment granted voting rights to white women, women of colour continued to face obstacles to voting due to discriminatory state laws and systemic racism.

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The 19th Amendment was ratified on August 18, 1920

The 19th Amendment, ratified on August 18, 1920, was a significant milestone in the history of women's suffrage in the United States. The journey towards this amendment began long before 1920 and involved tireless efforts by generations of activists and supporters.

Before 1776, women in several colonies that would become the United States had the right to vote. However, by 1807, every state constitution had denied women even limited suffrage. Despite this setback, women's rights organizations became increasingly active in the mid-19th century. In 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention played a pivotal role in adopting the Declaration of Sentiments, which advocated for equality between the sexes and included a call for women's suffrage.

The campaign for women's suffrage faced numerous challenges and varying levels of support across different states. By the late 19th century, new states and territories, particularly in the West, began to grant women the right to vote. Notable suffragists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton played a crucial role in advocating for women's voting rights. However, there was also opposition to the expansion of suffrage, with some arguing that it would detract from women's roles as mothers and wives.

The 19th Amendment itself reads: "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." This amendment ensured that women's right to vote was legally guaranteed and codified nationwide. However, it is important to note that the fight for equal voting rights continued for women of color due to systemic racism and discriminatory state voting laws.

The ratification of the 19th Amendment was a significant step forward in the pursuit of voting rights for women, but the journey towards full enfranchisement for all women in the United States remained ongoing even after its passage.

Women's suffrage organisations and activists

Susan B. Anthony, a prominent advocate for women's rights, demanded that the Fifteenth Amendment guarantee voting rights for women. In 1869, Anthony and Stanton founded the National Woman Suffrage Association, abandoning the AERA, which supported universal suffrage. They took this step because they believed that white women should gain the vote before Black men. Later that year, the American Woman Suffrage Association was formed by Lucy Stone, Julia Ward Howe, and others. These organisations marked the beginning of a more organised and vocal movement for women's suffrage.

Activists and supporters of women's suffrage employed a range of tactics to achieve their goals. They lectured, wrote, marched, lobbied, and practiced civil disobedience. Some suffragists, like Annie Tinker and Dr. Margaret 'Mike' Chung, challenged gender norms in their dress, behaviour, and relationships. More confrontational tactics were also used, including picketing, silent vigils, and hunger strikes. Large and dramatic parades were staged to draw attention to the cause, such as the 1913 parade in Washington, DC, where over 5,000 suffragists participated. During World War I, suffragists tried to pressure President Woodrow Wilson, who supported a conservative reform approach, into backing a federal woman suffrage amendment.

The efforts of these organisations and activists faced resistance and setbacks, but they persisted. Finally, in 1919, Congress approved the 19th Amendment, and in 1920, it was ratified, granting women the right to vote. However, the struggle for equal voting rights continued for women of colour, who faced voter suppression tactics and racially discriminatory laws. It wasn't until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 that universal suffrage was guaranteed in practice.

The Fifteenth Amendment enfranchised African-American men

The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, passed by Congress on February 26, 1869, and ratified on February 3, 1870, was a remarkable accomplishment, given the dominance of slavery before the Civil War. It prohibited the federal government and individual states from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote based on "race, colour, or previous condition of servitude". This amendment was celebrated by Black communities and abolitionist societies, with President Grant hailing it as "complet [ing] the greatest civil change" since the nation's birth.

The Fifteenth Amendment was the culmination of a prolonged struggle for African-American men's suffrage, particularly in the post-Civil War Reconstruction Era. During this period, Congress debated the rights of millions of Black freedmen, formerly enslaved. The passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, and the Fourteenth Amendment, which granted citizenship, set the stage for the Fifteenth Amendment. Republicans, recognising the potential shift in congressional representation due to the now-fully-counted Black population, sought to protect and attract the votes of these newly enfranchised Black men.

The writers of the Fifteenth Amendment considered three versions, with the first prohibiting the denial of suffrage based on race, colour, or previous enslavement; the second, based on literacy, property, or birth circumstances; and the third, affirming the right of all male citizens over 21 to vote. The first, most moderate version was ultimately chosen.

Despite the Fifteenth Amendment, African Americans continued to face disenfranchisement, particularly in the early 1890s, with literacy tests, "grandfather clauses", and other discriminatory practices written into law in former Confederate states. This resulted in social and economic segregation, relegating most African American citizens to second-class status under the "Jim Crow" segregation system. It was not until 1965, with the Voting Rights Act, that more concrete steps were taken to abolish voting deterrents and authorise federal supervision of voter registration.

Before the Nineteenth Amendment was ratified in 1920, the Constitution did not explicitly address women's suffrage. By 1807, every state constitution had denied women even limited voting rights. However, unmarried women who owned property in New Jersey could vote between 1776 and 1807, and in the mid-19th century, organisations supporting women's rights became more active. The Seneca Falls Convention in 1848 adopted the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for equality and voting rights for women. Legal arguments for women's suffrage based on existing amendments were struck down by the Supreme Court, leading activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton to campaign for a constitutional amendment.

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The struggle for women of colour to vote

The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, was a significant milestone in the struggle for women's suffrage. It states, "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex." However, this amendment did not guarantee voting rights for women of colour, and they continued to face significant obstacles even after its ratification.

Before the 19th Amendment, the fight for women's suffrage had been gaining momentum for decades. Women organised, petitioned, and picketed to win the right to vote, and by the late 19th century, several western states and territories granted women the right to vote. During this time, women of colour played a key role in the suffrage movement. They faced the challenge of navigating both sexism and racism in their fight for voting rights.

The National Association of Colored Women, founded in 1896, was led by Mary Church Terrell and included prominent members like Harriet Tubman and Ida B. Wells-Barnett. They advocated for the voting rights of African American women, who were often excluded from the mainstream suffrage movement. When the 15th Amendment enfranchised African-American men, some white suffragists, like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, opposed the idea of black men gaining the vote before white women. This led to a divide in the suffrage movement, with some activists prioritising racial equality over gender equality.

Even after the 19th Amendment was ratified, women of colour continued to face discrimination and disenfranchisement due to systemic racism. In the southern states, African American women were subjected to poll taxes, literacy tests, and violent intimidation when attempting to exercise their voting rights. It took decades of additional struggle, including the contributions of activists like Gertrude Simmons Bonnin (Zitkala-Sa) and the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, to begin dismantling these discriminatory practices and ensure that women of colour could fully participate in the democratic process.

The struggle for women of colour to gain the right to vote was a prolonged and arduous journey that extended beyond the ratification of the 19th Amendment. It required the dedication and perseverance of countless activists who navigated intersecting forms of oppression to create a more inclusive and just democracy.

The right to vote in certain states and cities

Before the 19th Amendment was passed, the right of women to vote varied across different states and cities. The Constitution did not explicitly mention voting rights, and the states were given the authority to craft their election laws.

In the early history of the United States, some women could vote in certain colonies and states. For instance, unmarried women who owned property in New Jersey could vote between 1776 and 1807. However, by 1807, every state constitution had denied women even limited suffrage.

In the mid-19th century, women's rights organizations became more active, and in 1848, the Seneca Falls Convention adopted the Declaration of Sentiments, calling for equality between the sexes and voting rights for women. Despite these efforts, it was not until the late 19th century that new states and territories, particularly in the West, began to grant women the right to vote. Wyoming, which granted women the right to vote in 1890, was followed by Utah, Colorado, and Idaho by the end of the century.

In the decades leading up to the passage of the 19th Amendment, women's suffrage supporters employed various strategies to achieve their goal. Some focused on passing suffrage acts in individual states, while others challenged male-only voting laws in court. By 1912, nine western states had adopted woman suffrage legislation. Women's suffrage organizations also used patriotic appeals, arguing that women who served the country during World War I should have the same right to vote as their male counterparts.

While the 19th Amendment granted women the right to vote nationwide, the fight for equal voting rights continued for women of color due to discriminatory state voting laws and systemic racism. African American women faced additional obstacles, such as poll taxes, fraudulent voting practices, literacy tests, and violence, particularly in the Southern states. It would take several more decades and legislative changes, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, to address these issues and ensure that all women could exercise their right to vote.

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