Malcolm Rivera
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE), was a period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age in the history of India. During this time, the primary measure of wealth for the Indo-Aryans was the number of cattle they possessed. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, and the words 'gotra' and 'gavishti' were used to signify the endogamous kinship group and to denote war, respectively. The Indo-Aryans also practised agriculture, cultivating wheat, rice, barley, and beans, and they also engaged in crafts such as pottery, leatherwork, and carpentry.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Primary occupation | Cattle rearing |
| Unit of currency | Cattle |
| Wealth measurement | Number of cattle |
| Food | Rice, barley, bean, sesamum, bread, cake, milk, ghee, butter, curd, fruits, fish, birds, goats, rams, bulls, horses |
| Drinks | Sura, soma |
| Clothing | Cotton, wool, animal skin |
| Metals used | Copper, iron, bronze |
| Crafts | Pottery, carpentry, leather work, tanning, textile dying, jewelry crafting, wine making |
| Social structure | Tribal but egalitarian |
| Political structure | Kingdoms |
| Religion | Worship of Indra, Aditi, Ushas, and other gods |
| Marital status | Monogamy, polygyny, polyandry |
| Gender equality | Women could choose their husbands, enjoyed a respectable position, and could be sages |
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What You'll Learn
Cattle as currency
Cattle played a crucial role in the economy and social life of the Vedic Aryans. During the Early Vedic Period, the Indo-Aryans relied heavily on a pastoral, semi-nomadic economy with limited agriculture. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle, which became symbols of wealth. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, as indicated by the use of the words "gotra" ("cowpen") to signify the endogamous kinship group and "gavishti" ("searching for cows") to denote war. The slaughter of cows was prohibited, further contributing to their value.
The main occupation of the Vedic Aryans was cattle rearing, and their wealth was measured by the number of cattle they possessed. Cattle were used as a form of currency in the barter system that prevailed during this period. This economic system was based on gift-giving, particularly between kings and priests, and barter exchange with cattle as a unit of value. The Vedic Aryans also practiced agriculture, cultivating wheat, rice, barley, and beans, and they implemented crafts such as pottery, leatherwork, and carpentry.
The transition from a semi-nomadic to a settled agricultural society during the Later Vedic Period (c. 1000-500 BCE) led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. The development of iron tools, including axes and ploughs, enabled the clearing of forests and the expansion of settlements into new areas, such as the western Ganges Plain. This period also witnessed the emergence of towns, kingdoms, and a complex social differentiation distinctive to India.
The Vedic Aryans were organized into tribes, and their society was patriarchal, with a focus on the worship of gods and goddesses. Indra, the God of Rain, played a significant role in their religion, and they believed in female goddesses like Aditi and Ushas, the Goddess of Dawn. The institution of marriage was important, and polygyny and polyandry were practiced. Women enjoyed a respectable position, with the right to choose their husbands and the ability to remarry if they became widows.
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Agriculture and trade
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE), was a period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age in the history of India. During this time, the Vedic Aryans were organised into tribes and relied heavily on a pastoral, semi-nomadic economy with limited agriculture. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle, with the latter being considered symbols of wealth. Cattle were a unit of currency in the barter system.
After the 12th century BCE, the Vedic society transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India. The adoption of iron tools, axes, and ploughs allowed for the clearing of forests and the cultivation of wheat, rice, and barley. This agricultural expansion led to an increase in trade and competition for resources, with many tribes forming larger political units.
The economy of the early Vedic period was largely agro-pastoral, with agriculture and animal husbandry at its core. Cattle-rearing was a prominent occupation, and the cow was revered and seen as a source of wealth and economic prosperity. The Aryans also practiced irrigation and manure application and prayed for a good harvest and the welfare of domestic animals.
Trade and commerce were major aspects of the early Vedic economy, with both internal and external trade valued equally. The Pani guild of merchants monitored and managed economic activity, and trade routes were established beyond the Hindu Kush to maintain the supply of horses, which were an important priority for Vedic leaders.
In summary, the agriculture and trade of the Vedic Aryan society were characterised by a transition from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture, with a reliance on pastoral activities and cattle as a measure of wealth. This led to increased trade, competition for resources, and the formation of larger political units.
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Tribal organisation
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE), was a period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India. It was characterised by the composition of Vedic literature, including the Vedas, in the northern Indian subcontinent. The Vedic society was associated with the Kuru-Panchala region but they were not the only Indo-Aryan people in northern India. The Indo-Aryans were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, who originated in present-day northern Afghanistan.
During the early Vedic period, the Aryan culture was centred in Punjab and organised into tribes rather than kingdoms. The society was tribal but egalitarian. The tribes regularly clashed over land and resources. The Rigveda describes the most notable of these conflicts, the Battle of the Ten Kings, between the Bharatas tribe and a confederation of ten competing tribes. The Indo-Aryans relied heavily on a pastoral, semi-nomadic economy with limited agriculture. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle, which became symbols of wealth. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, used as a unit of currency in the barter system.
The early Vedic period witnessed a transition from nomadic pastoralism to settled village communities, with a mix of pastoral and agrarian economies. The use of iron axes and ploughs became widespread, allowing the Vedic Aryans to settle in the thick forests on the western Ganges Plain. This agricultural expansion led to an increase in trade and competition for resources, and many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. The Indo-Aryans cultivated wheat, rice, and barley and implemented new crafts, such as carpentry, leatherwork, tanning, pottery, jewellery crafting, textile dyeing, and winemaking.
The Kuru Kingdom, a tribal union of several Indo-Aryan tribes, played a significant role in the Vedic period. It was during this time that the Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an Old Indo-Aryan language. The Vedas contain details of life during this period, providing valuable insights into the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture.
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Patriarchal society
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE), was a patriarchal society. It was a period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India, between the end of the urban Indus Valley Civilisation and a second urbanisation, which began in the central Indo-Gangetic Plain around 600 BCE. The Vedas, the earliest literary record of Indian culture, were composed during this time and are a collection of liturgical texts that formed the basis of Brahmanical ideology. The Vedas were composed in Vedic Sanskrit and transmitted orally.
The Indo-Aryans, who entered India from the Iranian regions, were a branch of the Indo-Iranians, originating in present-day northern Afghanistan. They were organised into tribes rather than kingdoms and led a pastoral way of life. The early Vedic period witnessed the transition from nomadic pastoralism to settled village communities, with a mix of pastoral and agrarian economies. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, serving as a unit of currency in the barter system. The words gotra ("cowpen") and gavishti ("searching for cows") indicate the importance of cattle in the Vedic society.
The patriarchal nature of Vedic society is evident in the exclusion of women from sacrifices and religious life. While women enjoyed a respectable position, their status and participation in public life declined over time. Child marriage was sanctioned, and marriages between Aryan men and non-Aryan women were common.
The emergence of a complex social hierarchy also contributed to the patriarchal nature of Vedic society. The society was structured into four major classes: the Brahmans (Brāhmaṇas), Kshatriyas (landowning military leaders), Vaishyas (subservient but crucial to the economy), and Sudras (non-Aryan cultivators, often enslaved). This hierarchy, known as the varna system, solidified the patriarchal power structure, with men at the top.
The Indo-Aryans' transition to a more settled, agricultural way of life led to an increase in trade and competition for resources. They cultivated wheat, rice, and barley and developed crafts such as pottery, carpentry, leatherwork, and textile dying. The measurement of wealth during this time was multifaceted. In addition to cattle, gold coins called nishka were used for transactions. The possession of horses remained important, resulting in trade routes beyond the Hindu Kush. Overall, the Vedic Aryan society was patriarchal, with men holding more power and status than women, and wealth measured through a combination of cattle, gold coins, and possessions like horses.
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Religious practices
The Vedic Period, or Vedic Age (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE), was a period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India. It was during this time that the Vedas, the oldest scriptures in Hinduism, were composed. The Vedic Period can be divided into the Early Vedic Period (1750–1000 BCE) and the Later Vedic Period (1000–500 BCE). The religious beliefs and practices of the Indo-Aryans during the Vedic Period are referred to as Vedism or Brahmanism, and sometimes ancient Hinduism or Vedic Hinduism.
During the Early Vedic Period, the Indo-Aryans relied heavily on a pastoral, semi-nomadic economy with limited agriculture. They raised sheep, goats, and cattle, which became symbols of wealth. Cattle were initially the dominant commodity, with the number of cattle owned being a measure of wealth. The Rigveda, which was likely composed during this time, describes the Battle of the Ten Kings, fought between the Bharatas tribe and a confederation of ten competing tribes. The Indo-Aryans also preserved collections of religious and literary works by memorising and reciting them, and handing them down from one generation to the next in their sacred language, Sanskrit.
During the Later Vedic Period, the Indo-Aryans transitioned from semi-nomadic life to settled agriculture in north-western India, cultivating wheat, rice, and barley. This transition led to an increase in trade and competition for resources, and many of the old tribes coalesced to form larger political units. Economic exchanges were conducted through gift-giving, particularly between kings and priests, and barter, using cattle as a unit of currency. Gold coins called nishka were also used for transactions.
The Indo-Aryans had a patriarchal society, with a caste system that divided society into four major classes: the Brahmans (brāhmaṇas), Kshatriyas (Kṣatriyas), Vaishyas (Vaiśyas), and Sudras (Śūdras). The Kshatriyas were the landowning families and military leaders, while the Vaishyas were more subservient and crucial to the economy. The Sudras were traditionally viewed as non-Aryan cultivators who came under the domination of the Aryans and were often enslaved. However, some wealthy Sudras are mentioned, and in later centuries, some even became kings.
The Indo-Aryans had a polytheistic religion, worshipping 33 gods, including Indra, the god of rain, and female goddesses like Aditi and Ushas, the goddess of dawn. They did not worship to end their misery but instead for Praja (child), Pasu (cattle), food, health, and wealth. Offerings of milk, vegetables, ghee, and grains were made to the gods. The institution of marriage was important, with monogamy, polygyny, and polyandry mentioned in the Rigveda. Women could choose their husbands and remarry if their husbands died or disappeared, and they enjoyed a respectable position.
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Frequently asked questions
Wealth in the Vedic Aryan society was measured by the number of cattle one possessed.
In the Vedic Aryan society, the number of children a person had was also considered a measure of wealth. Additionally, the emergence of the four varnas or classes—the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras—meant that power, ownership of land, and connections with royalty were also markers of wealth.
The economy in the Early Vedic Period was primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic, with limited agriculture. Cattle were the dominant commodity and were used as a unit of currency in the barter system.
The main occupation of the people in the Vedic Aryan society was cattle rearing and agriculture. They also practiced crafts such as carpentry, leatherwork, tanning, pottery, jewelry crafting, textile dying, and winemaking.
