Simone Lawson
The collapse of the Soviet Union spurred Mongolia's transition to a democratic constitution. From 1921 to 1990, Mongolia was a communist single-party state under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party. In 1990, the country underwent a peaceful democratic revolution, known as the Mongolian Revolution, which led to the adoption of a new constitution in 1992. This revolution was driven by young people who wanted political and economic change, inspired by the economic reforms of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and influenced by revolutions in Eastern Europe. The collapse of the Soviet Union, which had provided significant economic aid to Mongolia, left the country facing harsh economic problems, but it also presented an opportunity for Mongolia to break free from Soviet influence and regain full independence and sovereignty.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of adoption of democratic constitution | 12 February 1992 |
| Previous constitution | 1960 |
| Cause of collapse | Fall of the Soviet Union |
| Nature of the collapse | Economic and political |
| Nature of the revolution | Peaceful, led by young people |
| Result | Transition to a multi-party system |
| Other results | Market economy, privatisation, mining boom, environmental issues, mass migration to Ulaanbaatar |
| Recent developments | Increase in number of seats in parliament, increase in minimum quota for women among party candidates |
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What You'll Learn
The fall of the Soviet Union
Mongolia's revolutionary process was unique, as it occurred during a time when the Soviet Union was disintegrating, and soon after China had crushed the Tiananmen Square protests. The relative ease of the Mongolian revolution resulted from a convergence between reformers of the democratic movement and those within the dominant party. The country experienced a national revolution during the winter of 1989-1990, which allowed it to assert its independence and sovereignty.
The Mongolian Revolution of 1990, also known as the Democratic Revolution, was a pivotal moment in the country's history. Driven primarily by young people and intellectuals inspired by the revolutions in Eastern Europe, it led to the adoption of a new constitution in 1992 and a transition to a multi-party democracy and a market economy. The 1992 constitution, fundamentally different from previous communist constitutions, prioritized national sovereignty and human rights. It restructured the legislative branch, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural (SGK).
The collapse of the Soviet Union had immediate economic consequences for Mongolia. With the loss of financial aid from the Soviet Union, enterprises closed down, inflation rose, and basic food had to be rationed. Mongolia faced harsh economic challenges as it navigated this new landscape without the support it had previously relied on.
In conclusion, the fall of the Soviet Union was a pivotal moment in Mongolia's history, sparking a democratic revolution and significant economic reforms. The country's transition to a multi-party democracy and a market system was influenced by the desire for independence and sovereignty, as well as the need to address economic inequalities. Mongolia's path to democracy was shaped by its unique historical context and the aspirations of its people for a more open and prosperous future.
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The Mongolian Revolution of 1990
In 1988, a group called "New Generation" began posting protest handbills in Ulaanbaatar, the capital city of Mongolia. By late 1989, young Mongolians had organised themselves into "informal" movements like the Mongolian Democratic Association (MDA), whose coordinator was democracy leader Sanjaasürengiin Zorig. In December 1989, the MDA held two large rallies in Ulaanbaatar, and after further demonstrations in February 1990, the statue of Stalin in front of the State Library was removed.
Following these initial demonstrations, more protests and a hunger strike led to the resignation of the MPRP leadership on March 9, 1990. This marked a significant shift in Mongolia's political landscape, as the MPRP had been the dominant political force in the country. The resignation of the MPRP leadership paved the way for constitutional and economic reforms, which were implemented by the new MPRP government under Dashiin Byambasüren, who shared power with the democrats.
In April 1990, the People's Great Khural (PGK) convened ahead of schedule and adopted a series of constitutional amendments. The PGK, also known as the upper house, first met on September 3, 1990, and elected a president, vice-president, prime minister, and 50 members to the Baga Hural (lower house). The vice-president also served as the chairman of the Baga Khural.
In July 1990, Mongolia held its first multiparty parliamentary elections, with parties running for 430 seats in the People's Great Khural. However, the opposition parties were unable to nominate enough candidates, and the MPRP won a majority of the seats. Despite this, the MPRP implemented constitutional and economic reforms, coinciding with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, which had provided significant economic aid to Mongolia. As a result, Mongolia experienced harsh economic problems, including enterprise closures, inflation, and food rationing.
In November 1991, the People's Great Khural began discussing a new constitution, which was adopted in January 1992 and entered into force on February 12, 1992. This constitution established Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic, guaranteed various rights and freedoms, and restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural (SGK). The 1992 constitution ended the socialist republic and marked a significant milestone in Mongolia's transition to democracy.
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The adoption of a new constitution in 1992
The 1992 constitution brought about several changes. Firstly, it restructured the legislative branch of government, establishing a unicameral legislature called the State Great Khural (SGK) or Mongolian Great Khural (MGK). This new legislative body consisted of 76 seats, with a directly elected president as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of government. The constitution also stipulated that members of the legislature could not hold any other posts or engage in other work concurrently.
The 1992 constitution also had a strong focus on national sovereignty and human rights, marking a shift from the previous communist constitutions. It established Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic, granting supreme power to its people and declaring the country's self-determination. This move towards participatory leadership was unprecedented in the region and secured international recognition for Mongolia as a sovereign state.
In addition to the political changes, the 1992 constitution also brought about administrative changes. The municipalities of Darkhan, Erdenet, and Ulaanbaatar, which were previously under the national government's jurisdiction, became the centres of new small provinces in 1994. The adoption of the new constitution was a significant step in Mongolia's transition to democracy and market economy, setting the framework for the country's modern legal system and political identity.
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The country's transition to a multi-party democracy
Mongolia's transition to a multi-party democracy was a result of the Mongolian Revolution of 1990, also known as the 1990 Democratic Revolution. This revolution was driven by young people who desired a change in the country and were inspired by the economic reforms of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s. The Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU), a group of intellectuals, played a critical role in pushing for these changes. The MDU was influenced by revolutions in Eastern Europe and exposed to concepts such as glasnost and freedom of speech.
The revolution led to the adoption of a new constitution in 1992, which fundamentally differed from the previous communist constitutions. This new constitution established Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic, prioritizing national sovereignty and human rights. It restructured the legislative branch of the government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural (SGK). The constitution also stipulated that members of the legislature could not hold any other posts unrelated to their duties.
The transition to democracy was not without its challenges. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mongolia lost significant economic aid, leading to harsh economic problems, including enterprise closures, inflation, and food rationing. Additionally, the country has experienced relative political instability, with various parties attempting to address issues through constitutional amendments.
In recent years, Mongolia has continued to make reforms to strengthen its democratic governance. In 2023, parliamentary representation was enlarged from 76 to 126 seats to enhance democratic representation. Additionally, the country has amended the Law on Elections to increase female representation among party candidates, addressing long-standing gender parity issues. Despite these advancements, Mongolia has faced a decline in civil liberties, economic equality, freedom of expression, free political parties, and freedom of the press, attributed to weak political parties and government restrictions on civic space.
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The influence of the Mongolian Democratic Union
The Mongolian Revolution of 1990, also known as the 1990 Democratic Revolution, was a peaceful democratic revolution that led to the country's transition to a multi-party system. The revolution was primarily driven by young people who desired a change in the country. One of the most influential groups that pushed for change was the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU).
The MDU was formed by the end of 1989 and was composed of intellectuals influenced by the revolutions in Eastern Europe and the economic reforms of the Soviet Union. Concepts such as glasnost, freedom of speech, and economic liberties inspired the initial discussions that led to the revolution. Many prominent figures, such as Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, Dari-Sukhbaatar, and Chimediin Enkhee, were members of the union and would eventually become known as the Thirteen Leaders of Mongolia's Democratic Revolution.
The MDU played a crucial role in organising demonstrations, rallies, protests, and hunger strikes, as well as teachers' and workers' strikes. They had growing support from Mongolians, both in the capital and the countryside. The efforts of the MDU and other activists put pressure on the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), which had been the ruling communist party since 1924.
In December 1989, the MDU held its first open pro-democracy demonstration in front of the Youth Cultural Centre in Ulaanbaatar, where they demanded a multi-party system, free elections with universal suffrage, a market economy, private property, reorganisation of the government, and protection of human rights, including freedom of religion. Demonstrations increased in late December and continued into 1990, with protesters rallying at Sükhbaatar Square in Ulaanbaatar.
The MDU's influence led to significant changes in Mongolia. The MPRP entered into negotiations with the democratic leaders, and the country adopted a new constitution in 1992, ending one-party rule. The MDU's efforts contributed to the democratic reforms and the transition to a multi-party democracy in Mongolia.
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Frequently asked questions
The collapse of the Soviet Union spurred Mongolia to adopt a democratic constitution.
The Mongolian Revolution of 1990, known in Mongolia as the 1990 Democratic Revolution.
The Mongolian Revolution of 1990 was driven by young people who wanted a change in the country. One critical group was the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU), a group of intellectuals influenced by revolutions in Eastern Europe.
