Malcolm Rivera
The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan and his successors, was a dominant force that shaped Eurasia and consequently the modern world. The Mongols' military achievements were due to their superior strategy and tactics, and their army was the first modern army, built on a rational structure with promotion based on merit. The Mongol Empire's diplomacy with Europe can be traced back to the 7th century with the Keraites Mongol tribe's contact with the Nestorians, and in the 13th century, characters such as Guillaume de Rubrouck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpini played important roles in connecting the khans to the popes and establishing military alliances. The Mongol Empire also allowed Franciscan missions to expand in Mongol territories, augmenting their diplomacy with religious entities in Europe.
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What You'll Learn
Religious tolerance
The Mongol Empire, which spanned from 1206 until 1368, was culturally diverse, with substantial groups of people following religions such as Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Taoism. The dominant religion of the Mongols themselves was Tengrism, a Shamanist belief system.
The Mongol ruler Genghis Khan is known for his policy of religious tolerance, which is considered one of the few positive legacies of the Mongol Empire. Khan realised that religious freedom would benefit his expansionist ambitions, and during his conquest of Khwarazmian (modern-day Iran) from 1219 to 1221, he declared that Islamic religious practices were permitted. He also exempted religious leaders from taxation and reinforced their hereditary rights to these posts.
However, some argue that the extent of the empire's religious tolerance has been overemphasised. While it is true that the Mongols were not forbidden from following whichever faith they pleased, restrictions were placed on certain faiths, particularly Islam and Judaism. Khan issued a decree forbidding halal butchering practices and banning circumcision and kosher food practices. Additionally, the Mongols' tolerance of Islam may have been influenced by pragmatism or indifference rather than a genuine respect for religious freedom.
The Mongols also used religious persecution to their advantage, employing suppressed people as spies in cities they wished to conquer. Despite these complexities, the Mongol Empire is generally seen as a model of religious tolerance, where each of the Khan's subjects was free to worship as they pleased.
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Trade and merchants
The nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols meant that they recognised the importance of trade from early on. Genghis Khan understood that the Mongol army would need many goods, such as weapons, armour, and horses, and that trade was necessary to acquire them. To encourage trade, Khan offered protection to merchants and elevated their status, which contrasted with the attitudes of the Chinese and Persians, who despised traders. The Mongol attitude towards merchants was instrumental in the development of trade. The Mongol Empire's unification of large parts of Eurasia provided security for merchants, reducing the obstacles to trade. The Mongol military maintained troops along trade routes, and the complex local taxation systems that previously existed were abolished. A system of standard weights and measures was also introduced. The Mongols also established a vast infrastructure, with well-maintained roads linking Anatolia to China, which encouraged merchants to travel and trade.
The Mongol Empire's sponsorship of trade took the form of an "extraordinary passport", which allowed merchants to access the empire's infrastructure. This sponsorship was not limited to a select few; numerous European merchants took advantage of the system. The Mongol capital, Cambaluc, hosted many foreign merchants and travellers, with separate inns provided for merchants from different parts of the world, including those from Lombardy, Germany, and France. This period, known as Pax Mongolica, saw the first direct trade between Europe and China.
The Mongols' trade and money-lending partnerships were known as the Ortoq system, derived from the Turkic word for "partner". These partnerships were similar to modern limited partnerships, as the principal's liability was capped at the original investment. The contractual features of these partnerships were similar to those of qirad and commenda arrangements, but Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, and ingots of gold and silver for partnership investments. The Mongols also increased the amount of paper money in circulation and guaranteed its value in precious metals.
The Mongol Empire's unification of large parts of Eurasia under a single political authority resulted in the expansion of trade across the continent. Trade routes became safer, and the flow of goods between the Middle East and China was usually uninterrupted, even during periods of conflict. The exchange of goods and technologies flourished, with valuable spices, tea, Asian artworks, and silk heading west, and gold, medical manuscripts, astronomical tomes, and porcelain heading east. The Mongol Empire also allowed people of different religions to coexist, with Muslims and Christians living and working alongside Mongols.
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Military alliances
The Mongol Empire, which originated in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, was the largest contiguous empire in history. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, the empire grew rapidly and sent invading armies in all directions. The Mongols were the dominant force that shaped Eurasia and consequently, the modern world. They revolutionized warfare with their highly disciplined and mobile armies, executing complex tactical manoeuvres with speed and efficiency. Their military strength lay in their horse-mounted warriors and their superior warfare technology, such as the explosive gunpowder formula.
The Mongols' military diplomacy was greatly influenced by their desire to strengthen ties with Europe and spread their influence. They sought military alliances with European powers, particularly the Frankish Crusaders, against their common enemy, the Islamic caliphates. Despite sympathetic attitudes towards Christianity and the presence of influential Nestorian Christians in the Mongol court, the proposed Franco-Mongol alliance never fully materialized. However, the Mongols found temporary allies in the Kingdom of Georgia, which became a vassal state, and Armenia, whose monarchs encouraged other Christian nations to join the alliance.
The Mongols also sought to improve relations with the Papacy, with Pope Gregory X taking a keen interest in converting them. The Mongols attended the Second Council of Lyon in 1274, where they sought a military alliance with the major European powers in attendance. The peak of Mongol-papal relations occurred in the late 13th century, with the exchange of gifts and emissaries, including Marco Polo, contributing to the expansion of Mongol diplomacy in Europe.
In modern times, Mongolia's military diplomacy has been characterized by its efforts to maintain neutrality and balance in a challenging geopolitical landscape. After regaining independence from China in 1921, Mongolia's military was established with Soviet assistance, and it later formed an alliance with the Soviet Union. However, following the end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mongolia faced transitional challenges, including troop reductions and budget cuts. Today, Mongolia strives for a ""third neighbor" foreign policy, seeking to foster relations with countries beyond its two large neighbors, Russia and China. It has actively participated in peacekeeping missions and collaborated with the United States, NATO, and various European countries in military operations and exercises. Mongolia's investment in military confidence-building and balanced collaboration positions it as a potential mediator in a complex geopolitical environment.
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Foreign relations
The Mongol Empire, which emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes under Genghis Khan in the 13th and 14th centuries, was the largest contiguous empire in history. It stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, extending northward into parts of the Arctic, eastward and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent, and westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains.
The Mongol Empire's foreign relations were characterised by a complex interplay of military conquests, diplomatic alliances, and cultural exchanges. Genghis Khan's innovative military strategies, combined with the superior mobility and discipline of the Mongol armies, contributed to their rapid expansion. The Mongols' desire to control intercontinental trade routes and their reputation for destruction also influenced their foreign relations.
One of the notable aspects of Mongol foreign relations was their engagement with Europe and Christendom. The Mongols sought to use their links to Christianity to further their diplomatic ties with European powers. They established connections with the Pope, the head of Christendom, and explored the possibility of baptism for several Khans, particularly those ruling the Il-Khanate, which occupied current-day Iran and Iraq and bordered the Muslim-held portions of the Holy Land. The Second Council of Lyon in 1274, which discussed a unified front against the "Muslim threat" in the Holy Land, is an example of the Mongols' participation in European affairs.
The Mongols also utilised individuals with global outreach, such as Marco Polo, to strengthen their diplomatic relations with Europe. Polo, along with other emissaries like Guillaume de Rubrouck and Giovanni da Pian del Carpini, played a crucial role in connecting the Khans to the popes and establishing military alliances. The Mongols' relationship with the popes reached its peak in the latter part of the 13th century, contributing to the expansion of Mongol exchanges and diplomatic ties with Europe.
Additionally, the Mongol Empire engaged in science diplomacy, utilising scientists and intellectuals as key figures in their diplomatic efforts. These individuals served as translators and facilitators, promoting exchanges and building connections within the empire and beyond. The historical connection between diplomacy and science in the Eurasian context is an important aspect of understanding modern science diplomacy beyond a purely European perspective.
In terms of contemporary Mongolian foreign relations, the country has historically been influenced by its two large neighbours, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China. However, since adopting a democratic system in 1989, Mongolia has pursued a policy of non-alignment and sought to expand its relations with "third neighbour" countries, including South Korea, Japan, Turkey, the European Union, and India. Mongolia has also prioritised political and economic relations in its diplomacy while recognising the potential benefits of public diplomacy and cultural exchanges.
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Law and governance
The Mongol Empire was governed by a code of law devised by Genghis Khan, called Yassa, meaning "order" or "decree". This code of law applied equally to everyone, including Genghis Khan himself. It also ensured that those of rank shared much the same hardship as the common man. For example, Yassa imposed severe penalties, including the death penalty, for certain offences. For instance, if one mounted soldier following another did not pick up something dropped by the soldier in front, the death penalty would be imposed. There were also penalties for rape and, to some extent, murder. Any resistance to Mongol rule was met with massive collective punishment.
Genghis Khan's rule of law allowed him to amalgamate the various defeated clans into one nation, destroying the traditional power of the 'white-bone' lineages. He also abolished the civil service exams and kept separate laws for Mongols and for the Chinese. He preferred to employ foreigners in his bureaucracy, believing they would be more trustworthy than the Chinese. However, he did employ some Chinese in lower positions in his government.
The Mongol Empire was influenced by the religious freedom that prevailed among the Mongols. Genghis Khan had encountered the many religions flowing back and forth along the Silk Road, and religious freedom allowed him to secure the predominance of the state over religion. However, he did execute shamans that threatened his rule.
The Mongol Empire's governance was also characterised by the importance of councilors, who were appointed by the khan regardless of their nationality. These councilors had great influence, and the khan was assisted by both military and political councilors. The empire's governance was also marked by the absence of an original Mongol concept for ruling a settled population. This resulted in an empire that was highly influenced by the traditional administrative systems of the individual territories it conquered, such as China, Persia, or Central Asia.
The Mongols also established a sophisticated communication system based on melodies to ensure accurate memorisation, allowing scattered troops to regroup at short notice and remain in touch with distant leadership. This system was eventually used by merchants as well, contributing to the flourishing of both overland and maritime trade.
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Frequently asked questions
The Mongol Empire's diplomacy was based on religious tolerance, scientific exchanges, and military alliances.
The Mongol Empire established diplomatic ties with Europe by leveraging its links to Christianity and by using individuals with global outreach and ties to the Pope, such as Marco Polo.
Modern Mongolia's diplomacy is based on its "third neighbor" foreign policy, which seeks to establish relations with countries other than its two large neighboring countries, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China.
