Boarding Schools: Education Or Cultural Genocide?

Native American boarding schools, also known as American Indian residential schools, were established in the United States from the mid-17th century to the 20th century. The primary objective of these schools was to civilize or assimilate Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. This process involved denigrating Native American culture and forcing children to give up their languages and religions. While some students had positive experiences and made friends, many others suffered physical, sexual, cultural, and spiritual abuse and neglect, and experienced treatment that constituted torture. In 2021, the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative was launched to address the intergenerational impact of these schools and shed light on the traumas of the past.

Explore related products

Medicine River: A Story of Survival and the Legacy of Indian Boarding Schools

$17.79 $29

The Plot Against Native America: The Fateful Story of Native American Boarding Schools and the Theft of Tribal Lands

$13.2 $29.95

Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875–1928

$28.39 $29.99

Stealing Little Moon: The Legacy of the American Indian Boarding Schools (Scholastic Focus)

$15.47 $19.99

Kill the Indian, Save the Man

$14.88 $18.95

Boarding Schools (21st Century Skills Library: Racial Justice in America: Indigenous Peoples)

$13.22 $14.21

The historical context of Indian boarding schools

Native American boarding schools, also known as American Indian residential schools, were established in the United States from the mid-17th to the early 20th centuries. The primary objective of these schools was to "civilize" or assimilate Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. This process involved denigrating Native American culture and forcing children to give up their languages and religions. The schools were often operated by Christian missionaries of various denominations, with approval and funding from the federal government. The curriculum was rooted in linguistic imperialism and forced assimilation, with English-only policies and corporal punishment for those who did not comply.

The establishment of these boarding schools occurred within a broader context of colonization and oppression of Indigenous peoples in North America. Following the Civil War and decades of Indian Wars in the West, more tribes were forced onto reservations and ceded vast amounts of land to the US. The government, influenced by the progressive movement, believed that assimilation was necessary for tribal Indians to survive and become part of rapidly changing and urbanizing American society. As a result, they increased their efforts to provide education opportunities, often in the form of boarding schools that were intentionally located far away from Indigenous communities.

The first on-reservation boarding school was established in 1860 on the Yakima Indian Reservation in Washington by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The first off-reservation boarding school, the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, was founded in 1879. Richard Henry Pratt, the founder of the Carlisle school, promoted a philosophy famously known as "Kill the Indian, and save the man," which guided the curriculum and practices of the Carlisle school. It became a model for other government-run boarding schools. By 1902, the Bureau of Indian Affairs had authorized 25 federally funded off-reservation schools in 15 states and territories, enrolling over 6,000 students.

Life in these boarding schools was characterized by strict rules, harsh discipline, and forced assimilation. Students were given Anglo-American names, bathed in kerosene, forced to cut their hair, wear uniforms, and march in formations. They were punished for speaking their Native languages and were forbidden from engaging in any cultural practices or wearing traditional clothing. The curriculum focused on trades and manual labor, such as agriculture, carpentry, and printing for boys, and cooking, sewing, and laundry for girls, with the aim of making Native students marketable in American society. Students also experienced physical, sexual, cultural, and spiritual abuse, and in some cases, torture.

The impact of the Indian boarding school era has been recognized as traumatic and intergenerational, with efforts such as the Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative seeking to address and heal the traumas of the past. In October 2024, U.S. President Joe Biden issued an official apology on behalf of the federal government for the abuse suffered in these boarding schools.

The role of the US government

The US government played a significant role in the establishment and operation of Indian boarding schools. From the mid-17th century to the early 20th century, the primary objective of these schools was to "civilize" and assimilate Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. This assimilation policy was part of a broader attempt to either kill, annihilate, or assimilate Indigenous peoples and eradicate their cultures.

The US government, through the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), established and funded Indian boarding schools across the country. The first on-reservation boarding school was opened in 1860 on the Yakima Indian Reservation in Washington, with the first off-reservation school following in 1879. By 1902, the BIA had authorized 25 federally funded off-reservation schools in 15 states and territories, enrolling over 6,000 students. The Carlisle Indian School, founded by Richard Henry Pratt, became the model for other government boarding schools, emphasizing manual trades and vocational training for Native American students.

The government also collaborated with Christian missionaries to establish and operate these schools, often on reservations. While some families voluntarily sent their children to these schools, many were forced to do so. Native American children were removed from their families, communities, languages, religions, and cultural beliefs. They were punished for speaking their native languages, forbidden to practice their cultural traditions, and stripped of their traditional clothing and personal belongings. The schools were often run like military organizations, with strict rules and harsh discipline.

The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, announced in 2021 by Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland, aims to address the troubled legacy of these schools and shed light on the traumas experienced by Indigenous survivors. In 2024, President Joe Biden issued an official apology on behalf of the federal government for the abuse suffered in these boarding schools.

The impact on Indigenous culture and language

Native American boarding schools, also known as American Indian residential schools, were established in the United States from the mid-17th century to the early 20th century. The primary objective was to "civilize" or assimilate Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. This process involved denigrating Native American culture and forcing children to give up their languages, religions, and traditional ways of life. The impact of these schools on Indigenous culture and language was profound and continues to be felt today.

The curriculum in these schools was rooted in linguistic imperialism and the English-only movement, with a focus on forced assimilation through corporal punishment. Indian children were often forbidden from speaking their native languages and were punished for doing so. They were forced to adopt English names and cut their hair, replacing their traditional clothing with Western attire. Their traditional religious practices were forcibly replaced with Christianity, and they were taught that their cultures were inferior. Some teachers even ridiculed and made fun of the students' traditions, causing humiliation and shame. These experiences had a detrimental effect on the self-esteem of Indian students and the wellbeing of Native languages and cultures.

The federal government's policies and practices led to the forcible removal of Native American children from their homes, families, and communities. Indian boarding schools often drew children from various tribes, further separating them from their cultural roots. The schools were run like military organizations, with strict and disciplinarian rules. The curriculum and daily routines were designed to immerse students in Anglo-American culture, reinforcing their assimilation.

The impact of these schools extended beyond the individuals who attended them. The erosion of Indigenous languages, religions, and cultural practices within these institutions contributed to the loss of cultural knowledge and traditions within Indigenous communities. The trauma experienced by survivors of Indian boarding schools has been passed down through generations, and the healing process is ongoing. Today, efforts are being made to address the intergenerational impact of these schools and shed light on the traumas inflicted on Indigenous people during this dark chapter in American history.

It is important to acknowledge that not all experiences in Indian boarding schools were negative. Some students formed lifelong friendships, acquired knowledge, and learned useful skills that benefited them later in life. However, the overall impact on Indigenous culture and language was profoundly detrimental, contributing to the loss of cultural identity and the erosion of Native languages.

Explore related products

Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940 (North American Indian Prose Award)

$19.62

Indian School Days

$12.38 $21.95

Turning the Power: Indian Boarding Schools, Native American Anthropologists, and the Race to Preserve Indigenous Cultures (Critical Studies in the History of Anthropology)

$15.41 $65

They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilocco Indian School (North American Indian Prose Award)

$11.34 $20

Stringing Rosaries: The History, the Unforgivable, and the Healing of Northern Plains American Indian Boarding School Survivors (Contemporary Voices of Indigenous Peoples)

$31.1 $42.95

Carlisle Indian Industrial School: Indigenous Histories, Memories, and Reclamations (Indigenous Education)

$30 $40

Student experiences and testimonies

Native American boarding schools, also known as American Indian residential schools, were established in the United States from the mid-17th century to the early 20th century. The primary objective was to "civilize" or assimilate Native American children and youth into Anglo-American culture. The curriculum was rooted in linguistic imperialism, the English-only movement, and forced assimilation enforced by corporal punishment.

Students at these schools have shared a plethora of experiences and testimonies. Many students have recounted being punished for speaking their native languages. They were forced to cut their hair, give up their traditional clothing, and take on English names. Their religious practices were forcibly replaced with Christianity, and they were taught that their cultures were inferior. Some teachers even ridiculed and mocked the students' traditions, which caused humiliation and shame about their Native American identity. Several students have also shared stories of abuse in these boarding schools. Denise Lajimodiere, for instance, shared that her grandfather was beaten with a belt and witnessed the death of a fellow student from a beating at the school.

However, not all experiences were negative. Some students acquired knowledge and learned useful skills that helped them later in life. They learned academic subjects like math and science, as well as trades and practical skills such as agriculture, carpentry, printing, and cooking. Athletics and arts, including music and drawing, were also part of the curriculum. Additionally, some graduates found the experience at the Carlisle school, one of the first and most well-known boarding schools, to be positive.

The Federal Indian Boarding School Initiative, announced in June 2021 by Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland, aims to recognize the troubled legacy of these schools and address their intergenerational impact. As part of this initiative, "The Road to Healing" tour provided Indigenous survivors with the opportunity to share their experiences with the federal government for the first time.

Efforts towards recognition and healing

In late 2023, Secretary Haaland and Assistant Secretary Newland embarked on a 12-stop tour across the country, titled "The Road to Healing." This tour provided Indigenous survivors with the opportunity to share their experiences in federal Indian boarding schools with the federal government for the first time. The tour also connected survivors with trauma-informed support through the Department of Health and Human Service's Indian Health Service and Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration.

The Department of the Interior is also partnering with the Smithsonian's National Museum of American History to explore how to share the history of the federal Indian boarding school system with the public, with a focus on the previously untold experiences of survivors. As part of this effort, the National Native American Boarding School Healing Coalition is interviewing survivors to create a collection of first-person narratives. Additionally, an oral history project has been launched to document and make accessible the experiences of Indigenous children who attended these schools.

While these initiatives are important steps toward recognition and healing, it is essential to acknowledge that the federal and state governments have not yet issued a formal apology for the use of Indian boarding schools to terminate Indigenous cultures, religions, and languages. The Truth and Healing Commission on Indian Boarding School Policies Act, pending in the House and Senate, aims to authorize a Congressional Commission to formally investigate and record the history and ongoing impact of Indian boarding schools on Indigenous communities.

Frequently asked questions