Malcolm Rivera
President Woodrow Wilson's foreign policy was based on the principles of moral diplomacy and missionary diplomacy. These diplomatic strategies were employed by the US in its relations with Mexico, which had experienced a series of revolutions since 1910. Wilson's administration aimed to spread democracy and curb imperialism, particularly in Latin America. In Mexico, Wilson refused to recognize the authoritarian government of Victoriano Huerta, who had seized power through a revolution in 1913. This refusal to negotiate with a non-democratic government led to increased tensions and eventually resulted in US military intervention. Wilson's policies in Mexico set a precedent for his broader approach to international relations, which prioritized democratic values and self-determination over economic expansion.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Policy of US President | Woodrow Wilson |
| Deny diplomatic recognition to non-democratic governments in Latin America | |
| Expansion of Monroe Doctrine | |
| Driven by the belief that they knew better how to promote peace and well-being of other countries | |
| Related to his concepts of morality and democratic government | |
| Opposition to imperialism | |
| Support for countries with democratic governments | |
| Economic injury to non-democratic countries | |
| Increase the number of democratic nations, particularly in Latin America | |
| Intervention in Mexico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Panama, and Cuba | |
| Support for Haitian leader of choice | |
| Obtaining financial and administrative control of Haiti | |
| Intervention in the Dominican Republic due to political and fiscal unrest | |
| Military occupation of the Dominican Republic from 1916-1924 | |
| Encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico | |
| Unilateral decision to send troops into Mexico in pursuit of Pancho Villa | |
| Reaffirmed commitment to Mexican self-determination |
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What You'll Learn
Woodrow Wilson's moral and missionary diplomacy in Mexico
"Missionary diplomacy" is a label often applied to the policies and practices of the United States in Mexico during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921). Wilson's foreign policy was influenced by his ethical and religious beliefs. He believed that nations should adhere to high ethical and moral standards, and that democracy was the most Christian form of government, suitable for all peoples.
Wilson's concept of missionary diplomacy was related to his ideas of morality and democratic government. He believed that the United States had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any Latin American government that was not democratic. This was an expansion of President James Monroe's Monroe Doctrine of 1823. Wilson's administration first tested this policy in Mexico, which had been in a state of revolution since 1899 and entered a new stage in 1913 under the counterrevolutionary General Victoriano Huerta, whose authoritarian rule was rejected by Wilson. Wilson's stance encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico led by Venustiano Carranza, and in 1914, he used the arrest of some American sailors in Tampico as a justification for the US Navy to occupy the port city of Veracruz, weakening Huerta's control and leading to his abandonment of power in favour of Carranza, whom Wilson immediately recognised as Mexico's de facto president.
In 1916, Pancho Villa, one of Carranza's rivals, crossed the border into New Mexico and killed several Americans. Wilson sent an expedition of US soldiers into Mexico in pursuit of Villa, but they failed to capture him and instead provoked a confrontation with Carranza's forces in which men on both sides were killed and several Americans were captured. Despite this, Wilson reaffirmed his commitment to Mexican self-determination.
After World War I, Wilson saw the League of Nations as a vehicle for the application of Wilsonian democracy on an international scale. However, his use of military force in Veracruz has been criticised as a "blunder" resulting from his "interventionist impulses". Missionary diplomacy contributed to "Yankeephobia" in Latin America and led to a legacy of failure and ill will between the United States and Mexico.
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The Monroe Doctrine
Monroe asserted that the New World (the Americas) and the Old World (Europe) were to remain distinct spheres of influence. This meant that the United States would not interfere in the affairs of European powers and would respect their existing colonies in the Western Hemisphere. In turn, Monroe warned European powers not to interfere in the Western Hemisphere and that any attempt to do so would be viewed as a hostile act against the United States.
The Doctrine was generally well-received in Latin America, as it was seen as a statement of support for their independence from European colonial powers. Leaders of the emancipation movement in countries like Mexico and Argentina welcomed Monroe's words. However, some, like Chilean businessman and minister Diego Portales, questioned the true intentions behind the Doctrine, suspecting that the United States only cared about its own interests.
Despite the strong message, the Monroe Doctrine was initially disregarded by European powers due to the lack of military might of the United States at the time. It was, however, enforced by the United Kingdom to support its own Pax Britannica policy. Over time, the Doctrine became a cornerstone of US foreign policy and was invoked in various instances, such as in 1865 when the US supported Mexican President Benito Juárez in his revolt against the French-backed Emperor Maximilian. The Doctrine was also invoked symbolically during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 when the Soviet Union attempted to build missile sites in Cuba.
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Mexican revolution and counterrevolution
The Mexican Revolution, which lasted from 1910 to 1920, was a defining event in modern Mexican history. It was a long and bloody struggle among several factions, resulting in the end of the 30-year dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz and the establishment of a constitutional republic. The revolution began against the background of widespread dissatisfaction with Díaz's elitist and oligarchical policies, which favoured wealthy landowners and industrialists.
Francisco Madero, an idealistic liberal from an upper-class family, emerged as the leader of the Antireeleccionistas and called for a revolt against Díaz, starting on 20 November 1910. Madero's regime, however, proved to be ineffective, and he failed to meet the expectations of his followers, particularly in terms of economic changes and land reforms. This led to the rise of revolutionary leaders such as Emiliano Zapata, who demanded the redistribution of land to peasants, and Francisco "Pancho" Villa, a peasant's son who became a devoted follower of Madero and a skilled guerrilla fighter.
In 1913, Madero was overthrown and assassinated, and a military regime was established under General Victoriano Huerta. This sparked a new and bloody phase of the revolution, as a coalition of northerners opposed to the counter-revolutionary regime of Huerta entered the conflict. The revolutionary armies, including those led by Zapata and Villa, fought against each other and the Federal Army, resulting in the defeat of the Federal Army by 1914. Carranza, who led the Constitutionalist Army, consolidated power and promulgated a new constitution in 1917, which established universal male suffrage, promoted secularism, workers' rights, economic nationalism, and land reform.
In 1920, Sonoran revolutionary general Álvaro Obregón was elected President of Mexico, following a coup against Carranza. Obregón managed to persuade Pancho Villa to lay down his arms against the regime, and Carranza's agents assassinated Emiliano Zapata in 1919, removing a consistent and effective opponent. The Mexican Revolution resulted in significant changes to Mexican culture and government, with revolutionary generals holding power from 1920 to 1940.
The term "missionary diplomacy" is often used to describe the policies and practices of the United States in Mexico during the presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921). Wilson believed in the moral superiority of democracy and saw the United States as having a moral mandate for world leadership. This led to interventions in Latin America, particularly in Mexico, where the United States refused to recognize the Obregón regime until 1923. Wilson's missionary diplomacy in Mexico has been criticized as a failure, creating permanent hostility between the two countries.
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US intervention in Latin America
Wilson's administration intervened in Mexico, seeking to deny diplomatic recognition to any non-democratic government. This intervention created permanent hostility between the two nations and had disastrous consequences, including the failure to recognize the Mexican government until 1923. The US also intervened in other Latin American countries during this period, including Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, often leading to similar outcomes of instability and resentment.
During the Cold War, US intervention in Latin America intensified as a strategy to contain communism and replace left-wing leaders with right-wing authoritarian regimes. This included the US-backed coup in Argentina in 1976, which overthrew the democratically elected President Isabel Perón and installed a military dictatorship. Similarly, the US supported the 1971 coup in Bolivia, which toppled President Juan José Torres.
In recent years, US intervention in Latin America has continued, albeit with a focus on diplomatic, economic, and legal pressure rather than direct military action. For example, the Trump administration attempted to remove President Nicolás Maduro from office in Venezuela through sanctions and by backing opposition leader Juan Guaidó. These actions have been criticized for empowering extremist factions and damaging the Venezuelan economy.
Overall, US intervention in Latin America has had mixed results. While proponents argue that it has benefited both the US and Latin American nations by fostering economic growth and countering external threats, critics highlight the negative consequences, including the compromise of sovereignty, instability, and the generation of resentment towards the US.
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The legacy of Wilson's diplomacy in Mexico
Woodrow Wilson's presidency (1913-1921) was marked by his unique approach to diplomacy, which was based on his ethical and religious beliefs. This approach, known as "missionary diplomacy" or "moral diplomacy", had a significant impact on Mexico and left a lasting legacy in the country.
Wilson's moral diplomacy was driven by the belief that the United States had a moral responsibility to promote democracy and peace worldwide. He saw a close connection between domestic and foreign policies and wanted to replace the "dollar diplomacy" of his predecessor, which prioritised economic support to improve bilateral ties. Instead, Wilson's diplomacy was based on economic power, with the aim of curbing the growth of imperialism and spreading democracy. This was particularly relevant in Latin America, where several nations were under the influence of imperialism.
In Mexico, Wilson first applied his ideas of moral diplomacy in 1913, the same year he took office. At the time, Mexico was in the midst of a revolution that had begun in 1910 against the dictator Porfirio Díaz. When General Victoriano Huerta gained control of Mexico through a coup in 1913, Wilson refused to recognise him due to his undemocratic rise to power. This stance encouraged anti-Huerta forces in northern Mexico led by Venustiano Carranza. Wilson also sent US troops to occupy the port city of Veracruz, weakening Huerta's control and leading to his eventual surrender of power to Carranza, whom Wilson recognised as the de facto president of Mexico.
Wilson's interference in Mexican affairs, however, did not end there. In 1916, Pancho Villa, one of Carranza's rivals, crossed the border into New Mexico and killed several Americans. In response, Wilson unilaterally sent US soldiers into Mexico in pursuit of Villa, provoking a confrontation with Carranza's forces. Despite this incident, Wilson reaffirmed his commitment to Mexican self-determination and agreed to discuss border security with the Mexican government.
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Frequently asked questions
Moral diplomacy is a form of diplomacy proposed by President Woodrow Wilson in his 1912 United States presidential election campaign. It is the system in which support is given only to countries whose beliefs are analogous to that of the United States.
Missionary diplomacy was the policy of US President Woodrow Wilson that Washington had a moral responsibility to deny diplomatic recognition to any Latin American government that was not democratic. It was an expansion of President James Monroe's 1823 Monroe Doctrine.
Mexico posed a problem for Wilsonian diplomacy. In 1913, Mexico came under the rule of the counterrevolutionary General Victoriano Huerta, who clamped a bloody authoritarian rule on the country. Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's legitimacy because he had undemocratically risen to power by force.
Wilson's policies created seemingly permanent hostility between the United States and Latin America, especially in Mexico. Wilson first tested his Latin American policy in Mexico, and his actions against the Huerta regime included the use of force.
Wilson's missionary diplomacy in Mexico led to the same legacy of failure and ill will as in other countries. Despite Wilson's admirable ideas and objectives, his diplomacy was a disaster.
