Mongolia's Political System: A Constitutional Monarchy?

Mongolia has had a varied political history, from theocratic monarchy to communism. The country's current constitution, which came into force in 1992, establishes Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic, with power divided among independent legislative, executive, and judicial branches. However, some have argued for a return to a monarchy, and there is evidence that the country once had a constitutional monarchy.

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Mongolia's current political system

Mongolia's political system has undergone significant changes since the early 1990s. Prior to 1990, Mongolia was a communist single-party state under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). However, following the democratic revolution of 1990, the constitution was amended to remove references to the MPRP's leading role and to legalise opposition parties. This led to the country's first multi-party elections in 1990, and a new constitution was adopted in 1992, which restructured the legislative branch and provided for a directly elected president.

The MPRP remained the predominant party in Mongolia until 1996, when the Democratic Union Coalition, a coalition of the Democratic Party and the Social Democratic Party, won a historic victory in the parliamentary elections. However, the MPRP has continued to be a major force in Mongolian politics, and in 2010 it reverted to its original name, the Mongolian People's Party (MPP).

In terms of national security, Mongolia's 1992 constitution prohibits the presence of foreign troops in the country, and the country has maintained a nuclear weapons-free status. Mongolia cooperates with various countries, including the United States, China, and Russia, on military training and peacekeeping operations.

The country's history as a constitutional monarchy

Mongolia has not been a constitutional monarchy since the 1920s. Following the victory of the Soviet-backed Mongolian People's Party (MPP) in the 1921 revolution, the MPP gradually consolidated its power and transformed Mongolia into a one-party socialist republic. The MPP later became the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), a communist party.

During this time, under the Bogd Khan and autonomous governments, the Mongols attempted many reform policies. The "Treaty of the Oath" (Tangargiin Geree) outlined the basic principles of a limited monarchy. Article One of the treaty declared that the ruler of the Lamaist religion, Bogd Javzandamba Hutagt of Mongolia, had no jurisdiction in political matters and would oversee only religious matters. This meant that Mongolia had a constitutional monarchy similar to Japan.

However, shortly after the 1921 revolution, Mongolia adopted a one-party socialist republican constitution modelled after the Soviet Union. Only the MPRP was officially permitted to function, and any political opposition was brutally repressed. Mongolian politics was closely monitored and directed by the Kremlin.

In 1990, following a peaceful revolution, Mongolia held its first democratic elections. The constitution was amended to remove references to the MPRP's role as the leading political force, legalise opposition parties, and create a standing legislative body and the office of president. The new constitution, which came into force in 1992, established Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic with a unicameral legislature, the State Great Khural. Power is divided among independent legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with human rights guaranteed by law.

The Treaty of the Oath

Mongolia is not currently a constitutional monarchy. However, it has had a complex political history, including a period as a constitutional monarchy.

The treaty also addressed serfdom in the country, stating that "The serfs, as well as the nobles [will], be included among the sum’s menfolk", effectively putting an end to serfdom. This treaty was of primary significance during a time of fundamental changes to the state and social structures in Mongolia.

Mongolia's political history has been influenced by its two large neighbours, Russia and China. From 1921 to 1990, Mongolia was a communist single-party state under the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). Following the 1990 Democratic Revolution, the constitution was amended to remove references to the MPRP's leading role, legalise opposition parties, and create a standing legislative body and the office of the president. The first multi-party elections were held in July 1990, and a new constitution was adopted in January 1992, establishing Mongolia as an independent, sovereign republic.

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Mongolia's democratic revolution

Mongolia's transition to democracy was a result of the 1990 Democratic Revolution, also known as the Mongolian Revolution of 1990. This peaceful revolution was inspired by the economic reforms of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and was driven primarily by young people who wanted broader changes and an end to one-party rule.

The country's first steps towards political change began in the late 1980s, with the emergence of informal movements like the Mongolian Democratic Association (MDA) and the Mongolian Democratic Union (MDU). These groups were secretive due to the security risks associated with opposing the communist and socialist ideologies of the ruling Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP). On December 10, 1989, a Mongolian band sang "The Sound of a Bell" at Sukhbaatar Square, symbolically awakening the Mongolian people to the idea of democracy. This was followed by the first open pro-democracy demonstration on the same day, where the creation of the MDU was announced. Demonstrations increased after news of Garry Kasparov's interview with Playboy, which suggested that the Soviet Union might sell Mongolia to China.

In January 1990, the MDU began distributing leaflets calling for a democratic revolution, and protesters rallied at Sukhbaatar Square in the capital city of Ulaanbaatar. They celebrated figures that had been banned by the socialist curriculum, such as Genghis Khan, and rehabilitated politicians purged by the MPRP. The MPRP eventually agreed to a series of constitutional amendments, including the legalisation of new political parties, the establishment of a second legislative body, and the creation of a presidency. Mongolia's first multi-party elections were held on July 29, 1990, with the MPRP winning 85% of the seats.

However, one-party rule in Mongolia only officially ended with the adoption of a new constitution on February 12, 1992, which established the country as an independent, sovereign republic. This constitution restructured the legislative branch, creating a unicameral legislature called the State Great Khural, with 76 members. It also provided for the direct election of the president by popular vote. In June 1993, Punsalmaagiin Ochirbat, a former member of the MPRP who had changed his party affiliation to the Democratic Party following the revolution, became Mongolia's first democratically elected president.

The Mongolian democratic revolution was unique, occurring while the Soviet Union was still intact and shortly after China's crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Tiananmen Square. It was also relatively peaceful, with the MPRP leadership refusing to use force against the demonstrators and opting for dialogue and negotiation instead. This convergence between the reformers and the dominant party led to a profound change in Mongolia's political and economic systems, marking the country's transition to a full parliamentary regime.

The Mongolian monarchy's potential restoration

Mongolia has not been a constitutional monarchy since the 1920s. After the victory of the Soviet-backed Mongolian People's Party (MPP) in the 1921 revolution, the MPP transformed Mongolia into a command economy with state ownership of the means of production. The MPP was subsequently renamed the Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party (MPRP), and it remained the predominant party in Mongolia until 1996.

During the time of Baron Ungern, Mongolia had a paper currency called the Reserve, which was valued through sheep, cattle, horses, and camels. S. Danzan, the Minister of Finance, issued a Mongolian Dollar, but it was never circulated because he was killed before its release. Danzan believed that Mongolia, as a feudal society, would reach socialism through capitalism.

In 1990, a democratic revolution occurred in Mongolia, which led to the country's first democratic elections and the amendment of the constitution. The constitution removed references to the MPRP's role as the leading political force, legalised opposition parties, and created a standing legislative body and the office of the president. The MPRP won 85% of the seats in the country's first multi-party elections for the People's Great Khural (Upper Chamber of the Parliament) held on 29 July 1990.

A new constitution, Mongolia's fourth, was drafted and adopted in 1992, which provided for a directly elected president and a unicameral legislature, the Mongolian Great Khural (MGK). The 1992 constitution also restructured the legislative branch of government, dividing power among independent legislative, executive, and judicial branches, and guaranteeing human rights and certain freedoms.

While Mongolia is no longer a constitutional monarchy, there have been discussions and debates about the potential restoration of the Mongolian monarchy. Some people argue that if a country's traditional heritage includes a monarchy, there is no reason why it cannot be rebuilt. For example, the United Kingdom has a strong monarchic tradition and is also a democracy, showing that the two can coexist without troubles. It has been suggested that a referendum could be held in Mongolia to allow the people to decide, similar to the referendum held in Italy to choose between a monarchy and a republic.

However, others argue that a theocratic monarchy is unlikely to gain much support in Mongolia, as the country is quite irreligious, with 40% of the population declaring themselves as non-religious and 50% as Buddhist. Many of the rural population continue to practice traditional Tengrist or Buddhist beliefs to some degree, and the government has dedicated funds towards the reconstruction of old temples and places of worship damaged during Communist times. Nonetheless, the current economic crisis and the focus on mending it may take precedence over any potential plans to alter the political system.

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