Egypt's Government: Monarchy Or Republic?

Egypt has a rich constitutional history, evolving from a monarchy to a republic. The country has undergone several significant political shifts, including the 1952 revolution, which abolished the constitutional monarchy and established a republic led by a military junta. The most recent constitution was approved in 2012, following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution, which forced the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak. With a history dating back to ancient times, Egypt has been influenced by various civilisations, including the French Revolution and Islamic law, shaping its governance and legislative codes.

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Egypt's constitutional history can be traced back to the 1919 revolution

The 1923 constitution was briefly replaced in 1930 by a new constitution that limited the franchise to those owning a certain amount of property. However, the 1923 constitution came into force again and was permanently abolished after the revolution in 1952, which ended royal rule in Egypt and banished King Farouk into exile. The 1952 revolution transformed Egypt into a republic ruled by the military, and the new constitution introduced in 1956 granted women the right to vote.

The period between 1952 and 1970 was characterized by erratic constitutional development due to the military's constant issuance and revocation of self-serving constitutional edicts, hindering the development of effective multiparty democracy. During this time, three constitutions were issued and repealed: the Constitution of 16 January 1956, the Unity Constitution of 1958 following the creation of the United Arab Republic of Egypt and Syria, and the Interim Constitution of 25 March 1964 issued after the dissolution of the Egypt-Syria union.

In 1971, a new Egyptian constitution was adopted by referendum to replace the 1964 interim constitution, and it was amended in 1980, 2005, and 2007. The 1980 amendment made Sharia (Islamic law) the basis of all laws, a significant shift from previous secular constitutions. The 1971 constitution was suspended in February 2011 following a popular uprising that forced the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak, and a new provisional constitution was adopted in March 2011 based on amended articles and new measures approved by referendum. A new constitution was approved in 2012 but lasted only six months due to resistance from various segments of society.

The 1923 constitution established a constitutional monarchy with the king as head of the executive

The 1923 Constitution of Egypt was promulgated after Britain declared Egypt's independence in 1922. This constitution laid the political and cultural groundwork for modern Egypt, declaring it an independent sovereign Islamic state with Arabic as its language. It also extended voting rights to all adult males.

The 1923 Constitution established a constitutional monarchy with the king as the head of the executive. This meant that while the king retained significant powers, he was no longer an absolute monarch, and the country's governance was now based on a constitution. The constitution provided for a strong executive, with the king having the right to dissolve parliament. However, the parliament also had certain checks on the king's power, including the right to convene if not called to sit according to the scheduled date and the ability to pass a no-confidence vote.

The 1923 Constitution also established a bicameral parliament, consisting of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, with all members of the Chamber of Deputies being elected for a 5-year term. This parliament was an important step towards democracy and representation in Egypt, although it faced challenges due to intervention by occupation forces and the palace, which led to the dissolution of parliament ten times between 1923 and 1952.

The 1923 Constitution remained in force until it was replaced by a new constitution in 1930, which was less democratic. However, the 1923 Constitution was restored in 1935 and remained in effect until the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, which abolished the monarchy and transformed Egypt into a republic. Since then, Egypt has had several constitutions, with the most recent one being approved in 2012.

The 1952 constitution abolished the monarchy and transformed Egypt into a republic ruled by the military

The Egyptian Revolution of 1952, also known as the 1952 coup d'état, was a period of profound political, economic, and societal change in Egypt. On 23 July 1952, a group of army officers from the Free Officers Movement led by Mohamed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser overthrew King Farouk, marking the beginning of the revolution.

The first constitution issued during this period was the Constitution of 16 January 1956, which granted women the right to vote for the first time in Egyptian history. The second was the Unity Constitution of 1958, which came into force when Egypt and Syria merged to form the United Arab Republic. The third was the Interim Constitution of 25 March 1964, issued following the dissolution of the United Arab Republic in 1961.

The 1952 Revolution not only transformed Egypt's political system but also contributed to the escalation of decolonization and the development of Third World solidarity during the Cold War. It sparked a wave of revolutionary politics in the Arab world and marked a significant shift in Egypt's constitutional history, moving away from the monarchy towards a republic governed by the military.

Today, Egypt is known as the Arab Republic of Egypt, reflecting its status as a republic rather than a monarchy. The country has continued to undergo constitutional changes, with the most recent constitution being approved in 2012 following the 2011 Egyptian Revolution.

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The 1971 constitution was suspended in 2011 following a popular uprising

Egypt has had a long constitutional history, with several constitutions in place over the years, both as a monarchy and, after 1952, as a republic. The 1971 Constitution, also known as "The Permanent Egyptian Constitution", was adopted on 11 September 1971 through a public referendum. It was amended in 1980, 2005, and 2007. The 1980 amendment is notable for making Sharia (Islamic law) the basis of all laws, a change from previous constitutions, which were secular.

The 1971 Constitution was suspended in February 2011 following the popular 2011 Egyptian Revolution. The uprising forced the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak, who had been in power for nearly 30 years. Cairo, the capital, became a "war zone", and the port city of Suez saw frequent violent clashes. Protesters defied a government-imposed curfew, and there was looting by rioters. On 11 February 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman announced Mubarak's resignation, and power was transferred to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), which assumed control. The military junta, led by Muhammad Tantawi, announced on 13 February that the 1971 Constitution was suspended, and both houses of parliament were dissolved.

The suspension of the 1971 Constitution marked a significant turning point in Egypt's political landscape. The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces issued an interim constitutional declaration on 30 March 2011, incorporating provisions from the 1971 Constitution and introducing new measures approved by referendum. These measures included making elections more open, imposing presidential term limits, and restricting the use of emergency laws. The constitutional declaration also provided for legislative and presidential elections and the drafting of a new permanent constitution.

The 2011 uprising and the subsequent suspension of the 1971 Constitution reflected the Egyptian people's desire for political and social change. The events of 2011 highlighted the power of popular movements, with social media playing a crucial role in organizing protests and spreading the uprising. The suspension of the constitution and the subsequent constitutional reforms aimed to address the demands for greater democracy, transparency, and accountability in Egypt's governance.

The 2012 constitution was drafted by a Constituent Assembly with a majority of Islamist members

Egypt has had a long constitutional history, with several constitutions in place over the years, both as a monarchy and a republic. The country's first constitution was promulgated in 1923, establishing a constitutional monarchy with the King as the head of the executive. This constitution provided for a bicameral parliament, an independent judiciary, and a strong executive.

Following the Egyptian revolution in 1952, the constitutional monarchy was abolished, and Egypt became a republic. The 1952 Constitution transformed the country's government into a military rule, responsible for the 1952 revolt. This period, lasting until 1970, was marked by erratic constitutional development, with the military frequently issuing and revoking edicts that hindered the development of a stable multiparty democracy.

The 1971 Constitution was suspended in February 2011 after a popular uprising forced the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak. An interim constitutional declaration was issued in March 2011 by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, incorporating provisions from the 1971 Constitution and new measures approved by referendum to ensure more open elections, impose presidential term limits, and restrict the use of emergency laws.

In 2012, a 100-member Constituent Assembly was appointed to draft a new constitution. This assembly, however, was controversial due to the dominance of Islamist members. Islamist parties had won a more than two-thirds majority in the legislature, resulting in Islamists occupying the majority of seats in the Constituent Assembly. The assembly was criticised by observers for its high number of Islamist members (66 out of 100), with 38 belonging to the Muslim Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party and the salafi Al Nour Party.

The Constituent Assembly faced multiple challenges, including boycotts and withdrawals by liberal, leftist, and social democratic parties, as well as church representatives, who saw it as an Islamist attempt to strengthen their power. The assembly was also the subject of several lawsuits challenging its legitimacy and constitutionality, with non-Islamist figures accusing Islamists of attempting to secure a voting majority. Despite these challenges, the assembly continued its work, and a new constitution was approved in 2012.

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