Eleanor Finch
Sanctions are a non-military means of coercion that can be applied in various domains, including diplomatic, economic, or cultural relations between states. They are often viewed as a lower-cost, lower-risk alternative to war, and are used to protect national security interests, protect international law, and defend against threats to international peace and security. The effectiveness of sanctions is questionable, with studies indicating that only 5-30% result in the desired change. Sanctions can also have unintended consequences, such as negatively impacting the general population or causing a 'boomerang effect' where the sanctioned country is driven to more desperate actions. Despite this, sanctions are widely used and can be an important tool in international diplomacy. For sanctioned countries, this means navigating a complex landscape of restrictions and finding ways to maintain or improve their position on the world stage.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type of sanctions | Economic, trade, diplomatic, cultural, sport, military, environmental |
| Who imposes sanctions | Countries, intergovernmental bodies (e.g. UN), US departments (e.g. Treasury, State, Commerce) |
| Purpose | Protect national security interests, protect international law, defend against threats to international peace and security, coercive diplomacy, economic coercion, conflict resolution, promote non-proliferation, deter non-constitutional changes, constrain terrorism, protect human rights |
| Effectiveness | Studies indicate that only 5-30% of sanctions result in the desired change; critics argue that sanctions cause unacceptable human costs and have unintended consequences |
| Alternatives | Private and public diplomacy, covert action, military intervention |
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What You'll Learn
Sanctions as a tool of diplomacy
Sanctions are often viewed as a tool of diplomacy and an alternative to military force. They are political and economic decisions that are part of diplomatic efforts by countries or multilateral or regional organizations against states or organizations. The objective is to protect national security interests, protect international law, and defend against threats to international peace and security. Sanctions are also used to coerce a policy change or attain a specific action from the target government.
There are several types of sanctions, including economic, trade, diplomatic, cultural, sport, and military sanctions. Economic sanctions can take the form of trade barriers, tariffs, restrictions on financial transactions, or a full naval blockade of the target's ports to block imported goods. Trade sanctions are applied for purely economic reasons and typically take the form of tariffs or similar measures rather than bans on trade. Sport sanctions are used as a way of psychological warfare, intending to crush the morale of the general population of the target country.
The use of sanctions as a tool of diplomacy has evolved in recent years, with the United States, in particular, innovating and reinventing its approach to sanctions in response to global events. The Obama Administration, for example, sought a more aggressive approach to using sanctions to advance US global security goals while reducing the collateral impact on the US economy. The US has also shifted its execution of sanctions policy to align more closely with the European Union's (EU) approach.
Sanctions have been used as a tool of diplomacy in several cases, including against China due to proliferation-related activity and human rights concerns, and against Cuba, where the United States stands alone in imposing sanctions. Sanctions against Russia following the aggression in Crimea and the killing of civilians in the shelling of the Ukrainian port city of Mariupol are another example of sanctions as a diplomacy tool.
While sanctions are widely used, their effectiveness has been questioned. Studies indicate that only 5 to 30 percent of sanctions result in the desired change. Sanctions also carry significant risks and can have unintended consequences, such as the "boomerang effect" described by Alexander George, where economic sanctions prompted Japan's decision to attack Pearl Harbor, leading to the United States' entry into World War II. Additionally, sanctions can have destructive effects on targeted societies and the general population, leading some to criticize them as a form of collective punishment.
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Effectiveness of sanctions
The effectiveness of sanctions is a highly contested topic. Sanctions are typically imposed as a form of intervention, serving as a lower-cost and lower-risk alternative to war. They are often employed as a response to foreign crises when national interests are not vital or when military action is not feasible. Policymakers may also use sanctions as a temporary measure while evaluating more punitive actions.
The impact of sanctions can be difficult to assess, and it is important to compare their effectiveness with that of other policy tools, such as private and public diplomacy, covert action, and military intervention. The effectiveness of sanctions depends on various factors, including the scale of the goals, the political and economic characteristics of the target, the nature and severity of the sanctions, the degree of multilateral support, the source of legal foundation, and the duration of the sanctions.
Unilateral sanctions, imposed by individual countries to further their strategic interests, have been criticised as ineffective and costly. Since 1970, unilateral US sanctions have achieved foreign policy goals in only 13% of cases. Additionally, economic sanctions can have unintended consequences, such as harming the general population of the target country more than its government. Furthermore, in an increasingly globalised and integrated international economy, sanctions may be less effective, as seen in the case of Russia, where alternative markets and workarounds have emerged to circumvent the sanctions.
However, some argue that sanctions are effective in certain contexts. They are more likely to be successful when the goal is relatively modest, the target country is economically weak and politically unstable, and the sanctioner and target have friendly relations and substantial trade prior to the imposition of sanctions. Additionally, quick and decisive action can maximise the impact of sanctions. For example, the arms embargo against the former Yugoslavia hurt Bosnia more than Croatia or Serbia, demonstrating the potential for sanctions to have unintended consequences.
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Unintended consequences of sanctions
Sanctions are a form of intervention that are generally viewed as a lower-cost, lower-risk course of action between diplomacy and war. They are often used as a response to foreign crises where military action is not feasible. However, despite their omnipresence, sanctions frequently bring about unintended consequences for the civilian population of the targeted country.
One of the unintended consequences of sanctions is their impact on the general population. Sanctions on Haiti from 1993 to 1994, for example, triggered severe health problems due to malnutrition and epidemics, increased unemployment and poverty, and reduced exports of agricultural products. Sport sanctions, which are intended to crush the morale of the general population, can also have unintended consequences, such as when an arms embargo hurt Bosnia far more than either Croatia or Serbia.
Another unintended consequence of sanctions is the development of workarounds that create resiliency for the targeted country. For example, Russia has been able to find alternative transportation methods, such as the East Siberian Pipeline to China, to circumvent the sanctions imposed on them. This has resulted in a reshaping of the energy map, with Russian oil now flowing more towards the East, towards countries like China and India.
Additionally, sanctions can have unintended political impacts, including potential consolidations of power within the target governments. For instance, the economic impact of sanctions on Russia has resulted in a smaller but more centralized economy, with power becoming more consolidated under the government. This highlights how sanctions can impair future investment and growth while also creating workarounds that build resilience.
Furthermore, the effectiveness of sanctions has been questioned, as some believe their harsh impacts can cause more harm to the general population than the intended targets. This is particularly true for comprehensive and long-lasting sanctions, as well as for sanctions against autocratic targets that are not economically isolated. The ability of sanctioned countries to develop workarounds also contributes to the limited effectiveness of sanctions in achieving their intended goals.
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Sanctions as a precursor to war
Sanctions are political and economic decisions that are part of diplomatic efforts by countries or multilateral and regional organizations against states or organizations. They are typically intended as strong economic coercion and can range from coercive diplomatic efforts to economic warfare, or even as preludes to war.
Economic sanctions are generally regarded as an alternative to war. They are a lower-cost, lower-risk course of action between diplomacy and war. Policymakers often consider sanctions as a response to foreign crises where the national interest is less than vital or where military action is not feasible. They are also used as a way to evaluate more punitive action. Sanctions can lead countries to diplomatic negotiations, which in turn contribute to future cooperation.
However, weak or overly destructive sanctions can increase the chance of war. When sanctions are too weak, they fail to disrupt the military power balance. When they are too severe, they can force the sanctioned country to rapidly increase its military power or even preemptively attack to prevent the imposition of sanctions.
The effectiveness of sanctions is questionable, as some believe their harsh impacts can cause more harm to the general population than the intended targets. For instance, the decade-long comprehensive sanctions regime against Iraq generated considerable political backlash. Sanctions against the former Yugoslavia, specifically the arms embargo, hurt Bosnia far more than either Croatia or Serbia, with effects not anticipated and not necessarily desired by the sanctioning countries.
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Sanctions as a means of isolation
Sanctions are often viewed as a means of conflict resolution, short of military intervention. They are a form of intervention, but they are generally considered a lower-cost, lower-risk option between diplomacy and war. Policymakers often consider sanctions as a response to foreign crises where national interests are not vital, or where military action is not feasible.
International sanctions are political and economic decisions that are part of diplomatic efforts by countries or regional organisations against states or organisations. These decisions include the temporary imposition of economic, trade, diplomatic, cultural, or other restrictions (sanctions measures) that are lifted when the security concerns are addressed. According to Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, only the UN Security Council has a mandate to apply sanctions that must be complied with by all UN member states.
Sanctions are often viewed as an alternative to military force, punishing an offending party economically, socially, or politically, rather than militarily. Those who impose sanctions hope to solve a conflict without the mass suffering and sacrifice required by war. Sanctions are widely used, but their use is much more common than their success. Studies indicate that only five to 30% of sanctions result in the desired change.
The use of sanctions also comes with significant risks and unintended consequences. Critics argue that sanctions are a form of collective punishment of the weakest and poorest members of society, including infants, children, the chronically ill, and the elderly. They can also have a boomerang effect, where the targeted country may be provoked into making desperate decisions, such as initiating a war. Additionally, sanctions can widen and prolong conflicts and cause unacceptable human costs, especially when they target whole sectors of society.
Despite the potential drawbacks, sanctions can be an effective tool for maintaining and restoring international peace and security when applied as part of a comprehensive strategy that includes peacekeeping, peacebuilding, and peacemaking. Sanctions can support governments and regions working towards peaceful transitions, deter non-constitutional changes, constrain terrorism, protect human rights, and promote non-proliferation.
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Frequently asked questions
International sanctions are political and economic decisions that are part of diplomatic efforts by countries or regional organizations against states or organizations to protect national security interests or international law.
Since 1966, the UN Security Council has established 31 sanctions regimes, including in Southern Rhodesia, South Africa, the Former Yugoslavia, Haiti, and Iran. The US has also imposed sanctions on more than three dozen countries, including China, Cuba, and Libya.
International sanctions are intended to coerce a policy change or attain a specific action from the target government. They can also be used to support peaceful transitions, deter non-constitutional changes, constrain terrorism, protect human rights, and promote non-proliferation.
Critics argue that sanctions can have unintended consequences, cause human suffering, and be ineffective in achieving their desired goals. Some claim that sanctions are illegal or criminal due to their impact on the right to development or self-defense.
Sanctioned countries may attempt to find alternative markets or workarounds to mitigate the impact of sanctions. They may also view sanctions as an act of aggression and respond defensively, or use diplomacy to negotiate and resolve conflicts.
