Omar Bennett
Diplomacy is the established method of influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence. It is often confused with foreign policy, but diplomacy is the chief instrument of foreign policy. There are several types of diplomacy, including gunboat diplomacy, public diplomacy, people's diplomacy, preventive diplomacy, and quiet diplomacy.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | The established method of influencing the decisions and behavior of foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other measures short of war or violence |
| Synonyms | Foreign policy |
| Types | Preventive, quiet, parliamentary, cultural, public, gunboat, and people's diplomacy |
| History | The word "diplomacy" comes from the Greek word "diploma", which meant double plates with inscriptions written on them, issued to envoys as credentials and confirmation of their authority |
| Practitioners | Diplomats, military attachés, and spies |
| Goals | Settling disputes, developing partnerships, promoting traditions, legislative standardization, and facilitating the development of relations between states |
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What You'll Learn
- Public diplomacy: communicating values, cultures, and traditions to other countries
- Preventive diplomacy: peaceful dispute resolution to prevent armed conflict
- Gunboat diplomacy: demonstrating strength to achieve foreign policy goals
- Parliamentary diplomacy: promoting values and principles in third countries
- Espionage: gathering intelligence and learning about other nations' military
Public diplomacy: communicating values, cultures, and traditions to other countries
Diplomacy is a complex and multifaceted concept, with various types of diplomacy employed by governments to achieve their strategic objectives. One of the key types is public diplomacy, which involves direct communication with foreign publics to foster understanding, build alliances, and advance national interests.
Public diplomacy is a critical tool for any government, as it enables them to communicate their values, cultures, and traditions to other countries and their citizens. This form of diplomacy is often used to improve a country's image and foster goodwill, which can facilitate cooperation and support for its policies and objectives. For example, during the Cold War, the United States used public diplomacy to showcase the strengths of democratic governments and capitalist enterprises to audiences in Eastern Europe, countering Soviet propaganda.
Another example of public diplomacy in action is through cultural diplomacy, which has gained prominence in an increasingly globalized and interconnected world. Countries like China and Qatar have recognized the importance of cultural exchange in strengthening international relations. China, for instance, has established initiatives to promote Chinese culture and enhance its influence worldwide, including educational programs that build upon the historic Silk Road connections.
Cultural diplomacy can take many forms, such as Peru's "gastro-diplomacy," where the country promoted its national cuisine to establish a global brand, protect its cultural heritage, and boost economic opportunities. Similarly, UNESCO has supported joint applications from countries like the two Koreas to recognize traditional sports and cultural practices, fostering cooperation and dialogue between nations.
Public diplomacy can also be employed to discredit adversaries and encourage foreign audiences to pressure or revolt against leaders who do not align with the strategic interests of the sender. However, these types of campaigns are often met with skepticism and limited success due to the potential for information distortion and the difficulty in distinguishing them from propaganda.
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Preventive diplomacy: peaceful dispute resolution to prevent armed conflict
While there is no definitive answer to the number of diplomacy types, preventive diplomacy is a critical concept in international relations. It is a form of diplomacy that aims to prevent disputes from escalating into armed conflicts and to limit the spread of violence when conflicts occur. This type of diplomacy can take many forms, from ""quiet diplomacy"" to the more assertive "muscular diplomacy", and involves a range of actors, including the United Nations and its Secretary-General, who provide "good offices" and mediation efforts to help parties in conflict settle disputes peacefully.
Preventive diplomacy is a proactive approach to conflict resolution, focusing on early intervention to address disputes before they escalate. It is closely linked to the concept of conflict prevention, which aims to address the root causes of violence and build resilience in fragile states. While the specific tactics may vary, the underlying principle is to create a peaceful resolution that is acceptable to all parties involved. This can be achieved through various means, including negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration.
The United Nations (UN) has played a crucial role in preventive diplomacy since its inception. The UN's Agenda for Peace (1992) defines preventive diplomacy as "action to prevent disputes from arising between parties, to prevent existing disputes from escalating into conflicts, and to limit the spread of the latter when they occur". The UN Secretary-General and their representatives are key actors in this process, offering their "good offices" to facilitate dialogue, compromise, and peaceful resolution. The UN's Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs (DPPA) provides essential support to these efforts, offering conflict analysis, planning, and assistance to peace envoys working in areas of tension worldwide.
In addition to the UN, other international organisations and regional bodies have embraced the principles of preventive diplomacy. For example, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) established the Comprehensive Crisis and Operations Management Centre (CCOMC) in 2012 to improve crisis response and enable early crisis identification. The African Union's (AU) Peace and Security Architecture also reflects a commitment to conflict prevention and preventive diplomacy. These efforts demonstrate a growing recognition of the importance of proactive diplomacy in maintaining international peace and security.
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Gunboat diplomacy: demonstrating strength to achieve foreign policy goals
Gunboat diplomacy is a strategy used by nations to pursue foreign policy objectives by demonstrating their naval power, implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare if negotiations do not go as desired. This strategy, which emerged during the imperialist era of the 19th century, was employed by Western powers such as Europe and the United States to coerce less powerful nations into granting concessions. The mere presence of a warship or a fleet of ships off the coast of a smaller country was often enough to exert pressure and achieve their diplomatic goals without the need for actual combat.
A notable example of gunboat diplomacy is the Don Pacifico affair in 1850, where the British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston dispatched a squadron of the Royal Navy to intimidate a weaker nation into compliance. This approach was also utilised by the United States Commodore Matthew Perry in 1853 when he sailed a fleet of four black warships into Japan's Tokyo Bay. Japan, lacking its naval power, quickly agreed to open its ports to trade with the West, marking a significant shift in Japanese foreign policy.
Gunboat diplomacy is distinct from "defence diplomacy," which seeks to achieve positive outcomes through peaceful means, and "military diplomacy," which refers specifically to the activities of military attachés. Instead, gunboat diplomacy falls under the category of hegemony, where a dominant country wields political, economic, and military influence over less powerful nations. This strategy has been employed by the United States throughout its history, especially as its military power grew in the early 20th century under President Theodore Roosevelt's "Big Stick" policy.
While gunboat diplomacy has been criticised as a form of coercive diplomacy, it continues to play a significant role in international relations. In the post-Cold War era, the United States has frequently repositioned its naval fleets to influence foreign capitals and assert its diplomatic power. This strategy has been summed up by Henry Kissinger, who stated, "An aircraft carrier is 100,000 tons of diplomacy." With advancements in technology, gunboat diplomacy has evolved to include the use of land-based military forces and missile strikes, further expanding the reach and impact of this diplomatic tactic.
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Parliamentary diplomacy: promoting values and principles in third countries
While there is no precise number, there are several types of diplomacy, including preventive diplomacy, small-state diplomacy, and parliamentary diplomacy.
Parliamentary diplomacy is a way to build relationships and promote cooperation between national parliaments. It is a means to enhance parliamentarians' control over governments and strengthen people's representation at international organisations. It is also a way to promote a country's values and principles in third countries.
Parliamentarians are not official foreign policy actors or diplomats, but they can actively promote topics that support their country's normative power interests. By engaging in international norm diffusion at interparliamentary meetings, they can multiply their government's normative power efforts and reach legislators in their country's key partner countries.
Parliaments regularly organise incoming and outgoing visits with other parliaments, and there are more formal arrangements such as parliamentary friendship groups that involve regular exchanges of views between MPs from different countries. Information gained through these interactions strengthens the work of MPs at the national level and enables them to play an active role in scrutinising foreign policy and the implementation of international agreements.
Parliamentary diplomacy can be conducted through bilateral relations between parliaments or through multilateral, international, and regional organisations and channels. MPs are often included in official delegations during state visits and international events, which can provide opportunities for parliamentary diplomacy.
A specialised body exists to coordinate the preparation, communication, and reporting of parliamentary diplomacy activities. This body produces regular summaries of the work of international organisations and the results of meetings and events. There are clear and transparent procedures in place for deciding on parliamentary diplomacy activities, and MPs are required to report back to parliament on their international engagements.
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Espionage: gathering intelligence and learning about other nations' military
Espionage, or the gathering of intelligence, is an important aspect of diplomacy. While diplomacy is the established method of influencing foreign governments and peoples through dialogue, negotiation, and other non-violent means, espionage is often a covert activity that involves gathering information and intelligence, especially about a nation's military capabilities and intentions.
Embassies serve as bases for both diplomats and spies, and the two roles can sometimes overlap. For example, military attachés are diplomats whose primary role is to gather information about the military of the host nation. They do not hide this role and are invited to events such as military parades or air shows, where they can openly gather intelligence.
In addition to these openly acknowledged spies, there are also deep-cover spies operating in embassies. These individuals hold fake positions and their main task is to illegally gather intelligence, often by coordinating spy rings of locals or other spies. However, spies operating out of embassies often gather little intelligence themselves, and their identities are usually known to the opposition. If discovered, these spies may be expelled from the embassy, but counter-intelligence agencies often prefer to keep them in place to feed them false information.
Espionage is a crucial tool for nations to gain an understanding of other countries' military capabilities, intentions, and potential threats. It allows them to make informed decisions about their foreign policies and strategies and can be a powerful instrument of statecraft. Through espionage, nations can also gather information about a wide range of topics, including political, economic, and cultural matters, which can be used to influence public opinion and shape international relations.
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Frequently asked questions
There are several types of diplomacy, and they have evolved over time. While there is no definitive number, here are some examples:
- Public diplomacy: This involves communicating a country's values, culture, and policies to the world. It includes foreign broadcasting, cultural exchanges, and educational initiatives.
- Gunboat diplomacy: This type of diplomacy involves demonstrating strength and using military force or economic power to achieve foreign policy goals.
- Preventive diplomacy: This refers to the peaceful resolution of conflicts before they escalate into violence. It includes approaches such as quiet diplomacy, which lacks a precise definition but aims to prevent or resolve violent conflicts.
- Cultural diplomacy: Cultural diplomacy is facilitated by diplomatic missions, consular offices, and cultural institutes to promote a country's language, literature, and culture in foreign universities.
Diplomacy is the primary tool for influencing the decisions and behaviour of foreign governments and peoples through peaceful means, such as dialogue, negotiation, and other non-violent measures. It is an essential instrument of foreign policy, which is set by political leaders and advised by diplomats, military officers, and intelligence officers.
While related, diplomacy and foreign policy are not the same. Diplomacy is the chief instrument of foreign policy. Foreign policy establishes goals and strategies, and diplomacy is the means by which these goals are pursued and achieved. Foreign policy may employ various tools, including secret agents, subversion, war, or violence, in addition to diplomacy.
