Omar Bennett
Plants communicate with other organisms and between themselves using volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are released constitutively and induced by external factors. Constitutive VOCs are released independent of external factors and provide information about the genetic identity of plants. Induced VOCs are released in response to external factors, such as herbivory, pathogen attack, mechanical damage, temperature stress, or drought stress. The blend of VOCs released by plants can vary depending on the plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. These blends can alter the behavioural responses of natural enemies, such as omnivorous predators, and influence the interactions between plants and other organisms. The study of constitutive and induced VOCs in plants provides insights into plant communication, ecological webs, and the potential for crop breeding to increase resistance against herbivores.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Definition | Constitutive plant volatiles are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are not induced by stresses and do not carry information on imminent stress. Herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) are blends of VOCs that a plant produces in response to herbivory. |
| Function | Constitutive VOCs provide information about the genetic identity of plants and are used by individual plants in the process of detection, discrimination, and adaptation to competitive neighbours. HIPVs are released after tissue disruption and guide the receiver to respond to upcoming threats or stress. |
| Examples | Constitutive VOCs include essential oils and their individual volatile organic constituents. HIPVs include (Z)-3-hexenol, (Z)-3-hexenyl acetate, and methyl salicylate. |
| Influence on other organisms | Both constitutive and induced VOCs work as messages sent from emitting plants to eavesdropping plants, influencing gene regulation, metabolism, phenotype, responses to stress, and behavioural choices. HIPVs attract omnivorous predators to damaged plants. |
| Production | Constitutive VOCs are produced by plants in monoculture or multi-species communities. HIPVs are produced by plants in response to herbivory, pathogen attack, mechanical damage, temperature stress, or other forms of biotic and abiotic stress. |
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What You'll Learn
- Induced volatiles are released by plants in response to herbivory
- Constitutive volatiles are not induced by stresses and do not signal imminent stress
- Induced volatiles can attract omnivorous predators to damaged plants
- The blend of volatiles varies according to plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage
- Constitutive volatiles provide information about the genetic identity of plants
Induced volatiles are released by plants in response to herbivory
Plants communicate and respond to their surroundings using volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are released by plants in response to various factors, including neighbouring plants, plant community attributes, and herbivory. While constitutive VOCs are emitted by plants regardless of external factors, induced VOCs are released in response to specific stimuli, such as herbivory.
The release of induced volatiles in response to herbivory is a form of plant communication that can influence the behaviour of other organisms. For instance, the emission of herbivore-induced plant volatiles (HIPVs) can attract omnivorous predators that feed on both plants and herbivores. These omnivores are attracted to the HIPVs and may help control the herbivore population by consuming them. Additionally, plants can also communicate with each other through induced volatiles, influencing the metabolism and behaviour of neighbouring plants.
The induction of volatile emissions in response to herbivory is a defence mechanism employed by plants. The release of certain compounds can directly deter herbivores or attract their natural enemies. For example, (E)-β-caryophyllene, a volatile compound emitted by some plant species, repels the Diaphorina citri insect, protecting citrus trees from damage. Furthermore, induced volatiles can also activate defence mechanisms in neighbouring plants, priming them for potential threats.
The specific blend of induced volatiles released by plants in response to herbivory can vary depending on the plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. This variation in volatile blends can lead to different responses from predators and neighbouring plants, affecting the overall plant community dynamics. While studies have primarily focused on pure carnivores, recent research has shown that omnivorous predators, such as predatory mites and ladybirds, also respond to plant volatiles when searching for prey. This highlights the complex nature of plant-omnivore interactions and the importance of considering the odours of released volatiles when breeding plants for increased resistance to herbivores.
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Constitutive volatiles are not induced by stresses and do not signal imminent stress
Plants communicate and respond to their physical and biological surroundings through the emission and perception of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are released by plants in response to various stimuli, such as insect herbivore feeding, mechanical damage, temperature stress, and competition from neighbouring plants.
While plants primarily communicate via VOCs, they may not require odorant-binding proteins (OBPs) or olfactory receptors (ORs) to sense constitutive VOCs. Constitutive VOCs are those that are not induced by stresses and do not signal imminent stress. They are emitted by plants regardless of external factors and provide information about the genetic identity of plants. The blend of constitutive VOCs can vary depending on plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. This blend influences the behaviour of other organisms, such as omnivorous predators, and neighbouring plants.
For example, in a study on red clover (Trifolium pratense) plants, higher amounts of constitutive VOCs were emitted when the plants grew in communities with orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) compared to when they grew with forbs (Geranium pratense). This variation in constitutive VOC emission can impact the behaviour of herbivores and omnivores.
Constitutive VOCs also play a role in plant–plant communication. They can influence the root exudate composition of neighbouring plants, affecting their resistance to pathogens. Additionally, constitutive VOCs released by invasive weed species, such as spotted knapweed (Centaurea maculosa), can modulate their growth and defence strategies based on the presence of neighbouring plant species.
While constitutive VOCs provide information about a plant's genetic identity and influence the behaviour of other organisms, they do not appear to be induced by stress or signal upcoming stress. Instead, they are part of the plant's normal communication and interaction with its environment.
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Induced volatiles can attract omnivorous predators to damaged plants
Plants emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in response to insect herbivore feeding. These VOCs can be constitutive or induced. Constitutive VOCs are emitted regardless of external factors, while induced VOCs are released in response to stimuli, such as herbivore damage.
Research has shown that the key predator Anthocoris nemorum is attracted to undamaged plants of three Salix clones: S. viminalis, S. dasyclados, and S. cinerea. However, when damaged by the herbivorous leaf beetle Phratora vulgatissima, these plants become even more attractive to A. nemorum. This is somewhat surprising, as the S. dasyclados clone is considered relatively resistant to P. vulgatissima and thus offers limited prey.
The blend of volatiles released by plants can vary depending on the plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. This blend can alter the behavioural response of natural enemies, including omnivores. For example, omnivorous predatory mites and ladybirds respond to plant volatiles in their search for prey. By understanding how omnivores detect and respond to plant volatiles, we can potentially utilize this knowledge in crop breeding for increased resistance against herbivores.
In summary, induced volatiles released by damaged plants can indeed attract omnivorous predators. This attraction is influenced by various factors, including the specific blend of volatiles, the plant species, and the dietary preferences of the omnivores. Further research is needed to fully comprehend the complex interactions between plants, herbivores, and omnivorous predators.
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The blend of volatiles varies according to plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage
The blend of plant volatiles varies according to plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. Plants communicate via the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with many animals as well as other plants. VOCs are increasingly understood as major mediators of information transfer between plant tissues. They are also used in communication with other organisms.
The blend of VOCs emitted by a plant can be influenced by the presence and identity of neighbouring plants, as well as plant community attributes such as species richness and composition. For example, studies have shown that the number of VOCs in the headspace increases with increasing plant species richness. The blend of VOCs can also be affected by environmental factors, such as atmospheric pollutants, which can react with VOCs and modify the signal strength and fidelity.
The blend of VOCs can also vary depending on the developmental stage of the plant. For example, plants respond to herbivore damage through various morphological, biochemical, and molecular alterations, and the blend of VOCs released after an attack may differ from the blend released by an undamaged plant.
Additionally, the blend of VOCs can be influenced by the genotype of the plant. There can be differences in constitutive volatile emissions between genotypes within a species, and these differences may act as preconditions for volatile interactions between specific genotypes.
The variation in the blend of VOCs emitted by plants can have important implications for plant interactions and ecosystem dynamics. For example, omnivorous predators such as Anthocoris nemorum have been found to be differentially attracted to certain plant species when they are damaged by herbivores, indicating that both constitutive and induced plant volatiles play a role in omnivore attraction.
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Constitutive volatiles provide information about the genetic identity of plants
Plants communicate and interact with other organisms and with each other by emitting volatile organic compounds (VOCs). VOCs are released in response to various biotic and abiotic factors, and they play a crucial role in mediating information transfer between plants and their environment.
Constitutive volatiles are VOCs that are released by plants regardless of external stimuli. They provide information about the genetic identity of plants and are used by individual plants to detect, discriminate, and adapt to their surroundings, particularly when competing with neighbouring plants. The blend of constitutive volatiles can vary depending on plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage. This variation in constitutive volatile blends can drive herbivore preference behaviour and influence the behaviour of omnivorous predators.
For example, in a study on Salix clones, the omnivorous predator Anthocoris nemorum was attracted to the constitutive volatiles released by undamaged plants of three different Salix species. Nematodes were most attracted to the native S. cinerea clone, followed by S. dasyclados and then S. viminalis. This demonstrates how constitutive volatiles play a role in attracting predators and how their blend can influence the behavioural response of natural enemies.
Constitutive volatiles also influence plant-to-plant communication. They act as messages sent from emitting plants to "eavesdropping" plants, impacting gene regulation, metabolism, phenotype, stress responses, and behavioural choices. The capacity of some plants to influence the metabolism and behaviour of neighbouring plants through the emission of constitutive VOCs has been repeatedly documented. For instance, red clover (Trifolium pratense) plants emitted significantly higher amounts of constitutive volatiles when growing in communities with orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) compared to when growing with forbs (Geranium pratense).
In summary, constitutive volatiles provide fundamental information about a plant's genetic identity, enabling plants to adapt and compete within their environment. They play a crucial role in plant communication, influencing the behaviour of neighbouring plants and attracting predators that can protect them from herbivores. The blend of constitutive volatiles varies across plant species and developmental stages, highlighting the complex and dynamic nature of plant interactions.
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Frequently asked questions
Constitutive plant volatiles are volatile organic compounds (VOCs) that are not induced by stresses and do not carry information on imminent stress. Induced volatiles, on the other hand, are released by plants in response to external factors such as insect attack, mechanical damage, temperature stress, or drought stress.
Plants use constitutive volatiles to communicate information about their genetic identity, which is used by other plants in the process of detection, discrimination, and adaptation to competitive neighbours. Induced volatiles, on the other hand, are used by plants to signal to other plants and animals about potential threats or stresses they are facing.
Constitutive volatiles play a role in plant-plant communication and can influence the metabolism and behaviour of neighbouring plants. They can also drive herbivore preference-behaviour. Induced volatiles, on the other hand, are released in response to herbivory and can alter the behavioural response of natural enemies of herbivores, potentially attracting them to the damaged plant.
While little is known about the impact of induced volatiles on omnivorous predators, studies have shown that the key predator Anthocoris nemorum is attracted to both constitutive and induced volatiles. The blend of volatiles released by plants can vary depending on the plant species, cultivar, and developmental stage, and this blend can influence the behavioural response of omnivorous predators.
