Eleanor Finch
The Big Four, also known as the Council of Four, consisted of leaders from Italy, the United States, Britain, and France, who dominated decision-making at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. The group was made up of Prime Ministers Vittorio Orlando of Italy, David Lloyd George of Britain, and Georges Benjamin Clemenceau of France, as well as President Woodrow Wilson of the United States. They played a significant role in shaping the post-World War I peace treaties, including the Treaty of Versailles with Germany. While they had varying goals and approaches, they collectively influenced the content of the treaties and the vision for a lasting peace.
In addition, during the creation of the United States Constitution, the Big Four referred to the Founding Fathers who played pivotal roles in its drafting and ratification. These individuals were George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, James Madison, and Roger Sherman. Washington, as the unanimously elected president of the Constitutional Convention, fostered consensus and compromise. Franklin, with his wit and wisdom, lightened the mood during tense debates. Madison, known as the Father of the Constitution, and Sherman, a skilled lawyer, were instrumental in the drafting process, offering proposals and amendments that shaped the final document.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Leaders | President Woodrow Wilson, Prime Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Orlando of Italy, and George Clemenceau of France |
| Goal | To end World War I and create a lasting peace |
| Treaty of Versailles | Signed by Germany |
| Treaty of Saint Germain | Signed by Austria |
| Treaty of Neuilly | Signed by Bulgaria |
| Treaty of Trianon | Signed by Hungary |
| Treaty of Sèvres | Signed by the Ottoman Empire |
| Wilson's vision | Lasting peace, elimination of war, democracy, self-determination of rule for all nations, open diplomacy, international disarmament, free trade, an international legal system, and collective security |
| Lloyd George's vision | Protect and expand the interests of the British Empire, support imperialism with strong local government, and combat Britain's financial difficulties |
| Clemenceau's vision | Resentment towards Germany, protection of French interests |
| Orlando's vision | Peripheral role, junior role in the Council of Four, focus on Italian interests |
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What You'll Learn
Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
The Fourteen Points were designed to avoid another terrible conflict and included proposals to abolish secret treaties, reduce armaments, adjust colonial claims in the interests of both native peoples and colonists, and ensure freedom of the seas. Wilson also proposed the removal of economic barriers between nations and the promise of "self-determination" for oppressed minorities.
Wilson's main goal was a long-term solution to end warfare based on the League of Nations and self-determination of nations. He wanted to create new nations out of defunct empires and opposed harsh terms and reparations imposed on Germany. Wilson's idealism pervaded the Fourteen Points, but he also had practical objectives. He hoped to keep Russia in the war by convincing the Bolsheviks that they would receive a better peace deal from the Allies, to bolster Allied morale, and to undermine German war support.
The Fourteen Points were well-received in the United States, Allied nations, and even by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin. Wilson used them as the basis for negotiating the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the war. However, most of his points were scuttled by Allied leaders, and he faced resistance in the Senate over concern that joining the League of Nations would force US involvement in European affairs.
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Vittorio Orlando's Italian demands
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was an Italian diplomat, politician, and statesman. Orlando served as the prime minister of Italy from October 1917 to June 1919. He was a strong supporter of Italy's entry into World War I and played a crucial role in the country's victory.
Orlando's Italian demands at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference are well-known. He represented Italy at the conference, alongside his foreign minister, Sidney Sonnino. Orlando expected Italy to be treated as an equal by the other winning leaders: Lloyd George, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson. However, this was not the case, and he clashed with Wilson over Italy's territorial demands in the Balkans, which had been guaranteed by the Allies in 1915.
Orlando's demands were rooted in Italy's desire for national unity and completion of the unification process. Italy sought significant territorial gains in Dalmatia, which had been promised to them in the London Pact of 1915. Orlando's government also instituted policies that improved the treatment of Italian troops and boosted their morale. Additionally, he ordered an investigation into the military disaster at Caporetto, which confirmed the fault of the military leadership, and he reorganized the army.
The failure of Orlando's delegation to satisfy these demands had significant consequences. Italy temporarily withdrew from the Paris Peace Conference for 11 days, leaving the other three countries as the major architects of the talks. This contributed to the rise of fascism in Italy and Mussolini's policies in the 1930s, as he sought to obtain what Italy had been denied at Versailles. Orlando himself resigned and withdrew from politics when Mussolini came to power in 1922.
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David Lloyd George's pragmatism
David Lloyd George was the first and only Welshman to serve as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, from 1916 to 1922. He was a radical and unorthodox politician, known for his wit and charm, who dominated the British political scene during the latter part of World War I.
Lloyd George's pragmatism was a key feature of his political career. He was described as a "pragmatist determined to protect and expand the interests of the British Empire" by the New York Times. Indeed, Lloyd George's pragmatism was a key factor in his decision-making as Prime Minister, particularly with regard to the war effort. For example, he wanted to make the destruction of the Ottoman Empire a major British war aim, believing that the capture of Jerusalem would impress British public opinion. At the same time, he was discreet about these plans at the Rome Conference, recognising that this objective served British interests rather than contributing significantly to winning the war.
Lloyd George's pragmatism was also evident in his approach to the Paris Peace Conference, where he negotiated the Treaty of Versailles with Germany. Unlike Clemenceau and Orlando, Lloyd George did not seek to destroy the German economy and political system with massive reparations. Instead, he took a more moderate stance, recognising that harsh terms against Germany were not in Britain's best interests. His pragmatism in these negotiations earned him acclaim, and he was regarded as the man who had won the war.
Lloyd George's pragmatism extended beyond foreign policy. As a member of the Cabinet before becoming Prime Minister, he was responsible for important domestic reforms. He introduced the Merchant Shipping Act, which improved seamen's living conditions, the Patents and Designs Act, which prevented foreign exploitation of British inventions, and the Port of London Act, which established the Port of London Authority. Lloyd George also initiated education and housing reforms, and his Finance Bill, known as "the People's Budget", levied taxes on the wealthy to help working citizens and the vulnerable.
Lloyd George's pragmatism was driven by his desire to protect and advance British interests, both domestically and internationally. His willingness to make tough decisions, compromise, and prioritise practical solutions over ideological rigidity contributed to his reputation as a strong and effective leader.
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Clemenceau's resentment towards Germany
Firstly, Clemenceau was aware of the growing pattern of German aggression towards France. The Franco-Prussian War of 1870 had resulted in the invasion of France and the annexation of the province of Alsace-Lorraine by Germany. This loss of territory was a significant blow to French national pride and fuelled Clemenceau's determination to regain what had been taken.
Secondly, Clemenceau sought revenge for the devastating impact of World War One on France. France suffered the highest number of casualties among the Big Three nations, with over 6 million men wounded or killed. The conflict also destroyed French factories and farms, causing widespread damage to the country's agriculture and industry. Clemenceau, fuelled by the fury of his nation, demanded reparations from Germany to fund the enormous costs of rebuilding France.
Clemenceau's resentment also stemmed from a desire to prevent future German aggression and protect France's security. He sought to strip back the German military and place harsh restrictions on their capabilities, limiting their army to 100,000 men and banning conscription, armoured vehicles, aircraft, and submarines. He also demanded the demilitarisation of the Rhineland, the border region between France and Germany, to remove any immediate military threat to France.
Furthermore, Clemenceau wanted to ensure that Germany took complete responsibility for World War One and the suffering it had caused. This is reflected in Clause 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, also known as the "War Guilt Clause", which stipulated that Germany accept full blame for the conflict.
Clemenceau's harsh position towards Germany continued into the 1920s, even after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles. He sought mutual defence treaties with the United Kingdom and the United States to counter potential future German aggression, although these never came into effect due to the US Senate's failure to ratify the treaty. Clemenceau's resentment and pursuit of punitive measures against Germany have been cited as contributing factors to the rise of tensions between European powers and the eventual outbreak of World War Two.
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Their collective dominance at the Paris Peace Conference
The Big Four—David Lloyd George (Britain), Woodrow Wilson (the US), Georges Clemenceau (France), and Vittorio Orlando (Italy)—collectively dominated the Paris Peace Conference, which formally opened on January 18, 1919. They were the primary decision-makers for the first six months of the conference, which was attended by over 20 nations.
Each of the Big Four had their own desired outcomes for the Treaty of Versailles, which was created from the conference. Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany harshly, with huge reparations, and demanded the return of land that had been conceded to Germany previously, especially Alsace-Lorraine. He also wanted Germany to take the blame for starting the war, so that France could be compensated for its losses during the war. Clemenceau's demands were supported by Orlando, who shared Clemenceau's desire for massive reparations from Germany.
However, Lloyd George and Wilson took a softer approach. Lloyd George wanted to please the British public, who desired harsh punishment for Germany, but he was also aware of the importance of trade with Germany for the British economy. Wilson wanted lasting peace and for Germany to be treated fairly, with blame not placed solely at their door. He also wanted to create a peace-keeping organisation, the League of Nations, which would solve disputes and prevent future conflict.
Lloyd George was considered the best negotiator of the group, and he managed to persuade Clemenceau to agree to the League of Nations to satisfy Wilson, and convinced Wilson to agree to the War Guilt Clause to appease Clemenceau. He also achieved his own aim of a more lenient peace that would not totally destroy Germany. Although Italy had wanted more, they were given a seat on the League of Nations, a share in German war reparations, and control of the Tyrol region.
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Frequently asked questions
The Big Four, also known as the Council of Four, were the leading architects of the Treaty of Versailles, which was signed by Germany, and the treaties of Saint Germain, Neuilly, Trianon, and Sèvres, which were signed by Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire, respectively. The Big Four consisted of leaders from Italy, the United States, Britain, and France who dominated decision-making at the Paris Peace Conference.
Woodrow Wilson, the President of the United States, played a significant role in shaping the Treaty of Versailles. He advocated for a lasting peace and the prevention of future large-scale conflicts. Wilson proposed his Fourteen Points, which outlined his vision of a post-war world, including the creation of a peace-keeping organization known as the League of Nations.
David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of Britain, had a pragmatic approach to the Treaty of Versailles. He aimed to protect and expand the interests of the British Empire. Lloyd George did not seek to destroy Germany with the treaty but rather believed in a united Germany to balance French and Russian power. He supported imperialism with strong local governments and included leaders from British colonies in the delegation.
