Omar Bennett
The Mexican War of Independence began in 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, issued the Grito de Dolores, or Cry of Dolores, calling for an end to Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land, and racial equality. The war culminated in 1821 when Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander, negotiated the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero, a rebel leader. This plan, inspired by the 1812 Spanish liberal constitution, established Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy with Catholicism as the official religion and equality for citizens of Spanish and Mexican descent. The Treaty of Córdoba was signed on August 24, 1821, marking the end of New Spain's dependence on Old Spain and the beginning of Mexico's journey as an independent nation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Mexican independence | 24 August 1821 |
| Date of the first cry for independence | 16 September 1810 |
| Person who first called for independence | Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest |
| What was called for | End of Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land, and racial equality |
| What the Constitution of 1812 sought to create | A new governing framework in the absence of the legitimate Spanish monarch |
| Who overthrew the autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII in 1820 | Spanish liberals |
| Who led troops into Mexico City in 1821 | Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander |
| What did Iturbide's political promise, the Plan of Iguala, seek to do | Free Mexico from Spanish control, solidify the country as Roman Catholic, and ensure that all citizens were equal |
| Who was the first president of Mexico | Guadalupe Victoria |
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What You'll Learn
The Plan of Iguala
A Constitutional Monarchy with a European Monarch: The Plan envisioned Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy, with a European prince or monarch at its head. This reflected the conservative nature of the plan, as it sought to preserve the benefits of colonialism while achieving self-government. If a suitable European ruler could not be found, the plan's author, Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander and Creole landowner, proposed that he should assume the role.
Catholicism as the Official Religion: The plan established Roman Catholicism as the sole official religion of Mexico. This maintained the privileged position of the Catholic Church and was in line with the religious sentiments of the conservative upper classes, including the higher clergy.
Equality for Peninsulares and Americanos: The Plan of Iguala guaranteed equal political and social rights for both Peninsulares (people born in Spain and residing in Mexico) and Americanos (people born in Mexico or the Americas). This equality extended to Creoles (American-born Spaniards) and Peninsulares of Spanish ancestry on both sides. However, it is important to note that the plan did not address the grievances of Afro-Mexicans, Indians, or mestizos, who were excluded from the same citizenship rights.
Elimination of Property Confiscations: The plan called for the elimination of property confiscations, which had been a point of contention during the independence movement.
Retention of Powers by the Church and Military: The Roman Catholic Church and the military were to retain all their powers under the plan, further solidifying their positions in the new independent nation.
A Unified Military Force: The Army of the Three Guarantees, also known as the Army of Three Guarantees, was formed by the unified forces of Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero, a revolutionary rebel leader and later President of Mexico. This army was tasked with defending the ideals of the Plan of Iguala and rapidly brought about the collapse of the royal government.
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The Treaty of Córdoba
The road to the Treaty of Córdoba was long and tumultuous. The initial spark of the Mexican War of Independence can be traced back to 1810, when Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, issued the "Cry of Dolores", calling for an end to Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land, and racial equality. Hidalgo was defeated and executed, but he inspired other leaders like José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero, who continued the fight against the Spanish and Royalist forces.
In 1820, a significant shift occurred in Spain. Liberal forces overthrew the autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII, reinstating the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which created a constitutional monarchy. This event had a profound impact on the political landscape in New Spain. Conservative Royalist forces in the colonies, seeking to preserve their position, rose up against the liberal regime in Spain, marking an unexpected turn of events. Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander, played a crucial role during this time.
Iturbide initiated contact with Vicente Guerrero in 1821, and the two eventually formed an alliance under the Plan of Iguala. This plan envisioned Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy, maintaining the privileged position of the Catholic Church and granting equal rights to Mexicans of Spanish descent and pure Spaniards, while Mexicans of mixed or pure indigenous blood would have lesser rights. With their unified military force, Iturbide and Guerrero rapidly brought about the collapse of the royal government.
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The Spanish Constitution of 1812
However, Guerrero, a key insurgent leader, objected to the Spanish Constitution of 1812's failure to address the grievances of many in New Spain, particularly regarding its exclusion of Afro-Mexicans from citizenship while granting it to European whites, Indians, and mestizos. Guerrero and other insurgents considered racial equality as a key matter. The impact of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 on Mexico's independence movement was complex, as it influenced the Plan of Iguala but also faced criticism for its shortcomings in addressing racial equality.
In 1821, Iturbide and Guerrero formed a unified military force, leading to the collapse of the royal government and the establishment of independent Mexico. On August 24, 1821, the Spanish viceroy, Juan O'Donojú, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, officially recognizing Mexico's independence. Mexico became an independent constitutional monarchy, with Iturbide as its first emperor. However, his empire was short-lived, and in 1823, Mexico transitioned into a federal republic.
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The Mexican War of Independence
In September 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, is credited with issuing the Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores"), a rallying cry for Mexican independence, land redistribution, and racial equality. Hidalgo's efforts ultimately led to his execution, but he inspired other revolutionary leaders, such as José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero, who continued the struggle against Spanish rule.
The Napoleonic invasion of the Iberian Peninsula in 1808 destabilized Spain and its overseas possessions, including Mexico. This prompted the drafting of the Spanish Constitution of 1812, which sought to address the aspirations of American-born Spaniards (criollos) for more local control and equal standing with Peninsular-born Spaniards (peninsulares). This constitution had a significant impact on the independence movement in Mexico, as it created a new governing framework that accommodated the demands for greater local autonomy.
In 1820, a military coup in Spain reinstated the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, threatening the status quo in New Spain. This prompted Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander, to switch sides and negotiate the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero in 1821. The plan proclaimed Mexico's independence, reaffirmed the country's Catholic faith, and established equal rights for criollos and peninsulares. Iturbide's troops rapidly defeated the remaining Royalist forces, and the Spanish viceroy was forced to accept Mexican independence.
On August 24, 1821, the Spanish viceroy, Juan O'Donojú, signed the Treaty of Córdoba, officially recognizing Mexico's independence. The First Mexican Empire was established, with Iturbide as its leader. However, this constitutional monarchy was short-lived, as republican leaders Santa Anna and Guadalupe Victoria deposed Iturbide in 1823 and established a federal republic. The Constitution of 1824 set democratic goals and provided for a federal republic consisting of multiple states, territories, and the Mexico City federal district.
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Mexico's first constitution
The Mexican War of Independence began in 1810 when Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, issued the Grito de Dolores, or "Cry of Dolores," calling for an end to Spanish rule in Mexico, redistribution of land, and racial equality. The war was influenced by Napoleon's occupation of Spain, which led to revolts across Spanish America. After some initial successes, Hidalgo was defeated and executed, but other leaders, including José María Morelos y Pavón, Mariano Matamoros, and Vicente Guerrero, continued the fight against the Spanish and Royalists.
In 1820, a military coup in Spain overthrew the autocratic rule of Ferdinand VII, leading to the reinstatement of the liberal Spanish Constitution of 1812, which created a constitutional monarchy. This event prompted conservative Royalist forces in New Spain to seek political independence to preserve their position. Agustín de Iturbide, a former Royalist commander, negotiated the Plan of Iguala with Vicente Guerrero, establishing Mexico as an independent constitutional monarchy with Catholicism as the official religion and equality between Mexicans of Spanish descent and pure Spaniards.
The Plan of Iguala, influenced by the Spanish Constitution of 1812, failed to address the grievances of many in New Spain, particularly regarding the exclusion of Afro-Mexicans from citizenship. Despite this, Mexico's independence was achieved in 1821, and the Spanish viceroy signed the Treaty of Córdoba, ending Spanish rule. The mainland of New Spain was organized as the First Mexican Empire, led by Agustín de Iturbide, who became emperor in 1822. However, this constitutional monarchy was short-lived, and a federal republic was established in 1823.
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Frequently asked questions
The Mexican War of Independence was a conflict that began in 1810 with Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla's "Cry of Dolores", which called for an end to Spanish rule in Mexico, and lasted until 1821, when Mexico gained its independence.
The Cry of Dolores, or Grito de Dolores, was a call to arms issued by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest, in the town of Dolores, Mexico, in 1810. In addition to calling for independence from Spain, Hidalgo also advocated for the abolition of slavery and the return of lands to Indigenous inhabitants.
The Plan of Iguala, also known as the Plan of Three Guarantees, was a proclamation authored by Agustín de Iturbide and Vicente Guerrero in 1821. It declared Mexico's independence from Spain, reaffirmed the country's Catholic faith, and established equal rights for American-born whites and Peninsular-born Spaniards.
The Spanish Constitution of 1812, which created a constitutional monarchy in Spain, had a significant impact on Mexico's path to independence. It attempted to address the demands of American-born Spaniards (criollos) for greater local control and equal status with Peninsular-born Spaniards (peninsulares). However, it failed to satisfy the aspirations of all Mexicans, particularly those seeking racial equality.
Mexico gained independence from Spain on August 24, 1821, with the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba. Mexico became an independent constitutional monarchy, with Agustín de Iturbide as its first emperor. However, his reign was short-lived, and Mexico transitioned into a federal republic in 1823.
