Malcolm Rivera
John Marshall, the fourth chief justice of the United States, served on the Supreme Court for 34 years, from 1801 to 1835. During his tenure, the Supreme Court grew in power and prominence, and Marshall himself played a key role in shaping the Court's unity and dignity. Marshall's interpretation of the Constitution and its application in various rulings, such as Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Gibbons v. Ogden, had a significant impact on the Court's role and the balance of power between the federal government and the states. Marshall's rulings also set precedents for issues like states' rights, individual property rights, and the commerce clause.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Marshall Court's tenure | 1801-1835 |
| Chief Justice | John Marshall |
| Cases | Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, Gibbons v. Ogden, Fletcher v. Peck, Dartmouth College v. Woodward |
| Powers of the Supreme Court | Interpreting the constitutionality of legislation and executive actions, determining the constitutionality of the actions of the other two branches of government, judicial review, co-equal branch of government |
| Marshall's beliefs | Supreme Court should have a role equal to the other two branches of government, supremacy of the Constitution over conflicting laws |
| Other | Commerce clause in Article 1 of the Constitution, First Amendment rights |
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What You'll Learn
Marbury v. Madison
The Marshall Court, which spanned from 1801 to 1835, was a period in which the Supreme Court grew in prominence and power, becoming a true co-equal to the executive and legislative branches. Chief Justice John Marshall's remarkable intellect and down-to-earth camaraderie helped shape the Supreme Court into a unified and dignified institution.
One of the most significant cases of the Marshall Court was Marbury v. Madison, which occurred in 1801 and was decided in 1803. This case established the power of the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional and asserted the federal judiciary's authority to check the power of executive branch officers.
In the case of Marbury v. Madison, William Marbury, a Maryland businessman and supporter of the Federalist Party, was appointed as a Justice of the Peace in the District of Columbia by outgoing President John Adams. However, Marbury's judicial commission was not delivered to him before Adams left office, as it was still in the possession of the outgoing Secretary of State, John Marshall. When Thomas Jefferson assumed the presidency, he instructed his new Secretary of State, James Madison, to withhold the undelivered commissions, including Marbury's.
Marbury filed a lawsuit in the Supreme Court, asking the Court to issue a writ of mandamus forcing Madison to deliver his commission. The Court, in a unanimous decision written by Chief Justice John Marshall, held that Madison's refusal to deliver the commission was illegal. However, the Court did not order Madison to comply, as it found that Marbury's claim attempted to extend the Court's original jurisdiction beyond its constitutional limits.
In his opinion, Marshall asserted that Marbury had a legal right to his commission, as all appropriate procedures had been followed and the commission had been properly signed and sealed. He also established the doctrine of judicial review, declaring that the Supreme Court had the power to invalidate laws that violated the Constitution. Marshall proclaimed: "It is, emphatically, the province and duty of the judicial department, to say what the law is." This precedent set by the Marshall Court continues to define the Supreme Court's power as the interpreter of the Constitution to this day.
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McCulloch v. Maryland
During his tenure as Chief Justice, John Marshall's Marshall Court issued unanimous opinions in a series of landmark cases, including McCulloch v. Maryland, that elevated the Supreme Court as the ultimate arbiter of constitutional debates.
The states argued that the Constitution did not explicitly give Congress the power to establish a national bank. However, supporters of the bank pointed to Article I, Section 8, which gives Congress the authority "to make all laws which shall be". In 1816, Congress established the Second National Bank to help control the amount of unregulated currency issued by state banks. Many states questioned the constitutionality of the national bank, and Maryland set a precedent by requiring taxes on all banks not chartered by the state. James W. McCulloch, a Federal cashier at the Baltimore branch of the US bank, refused to pay the taxes imposed by the state. Maryland filed a suit against McCulloch in an effort to collect the taxes.
In its ruling, the Supreme Court established that the "Necessary and Proper" Clause of the US Constitution gives the US federal government certain implied powers necessary and proper for the exercise of the powers enumerated explicitly in the Constitution. The Court invoked the Necessary and Proper Clause of the Constitution, which allows the federal government to pass laws not expressly provided for in the Constitution's list of enumerated powers of Congress if such laws are necessary and proper to further the powers expressly authorized. The Court interpreted the clause to mean that as long as the end was "legitimate... [and] within the scope of the Constitution", Congress may use "all means which are appropriate... which are not prohibited". The ruling also established that the American federal government is supreme over the states, and so states' ability to interfere with the federal government is restricted.
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Gibbons v. Ogden
The case arose from a dispute between Thomas Gibbons and Aaron Ogden over steamboat navigation rights. Gibbons had been given permission by the federal government to use the waterways, but the State of New York denied him access to the New York Bay between New York and New Jersey. Gibbons sued Ogden, who had a license from New York to navigate the same route. The New York Court for the Trial of Impeachments sided with Ogden and issued an injunction against Gibbons. Gibbons then appealed to the Supreme Court.
Daniel Webster, Gibbons' lawyer, argued that Congress had exclusive national power over interstate commerce according to Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 of the US Constitution. Ogden's lawyer, on the other hand, contended that states had concurrent power with Congress on matters concerning interstate commerce.
Chief Justice John Marshall's opinion in this case carried out the clear original intent of the Constitution to have Congress, not the states, regulate interstate commerce. Marshall ruled that Congress could constitutionally regulate many activities that affected interstate commerce, and that federal law took precedence over state laws. This decision sustained the nationalist definition of federal power and had far-reaching implications for the nation's economic life.
In his opinion, Marshall proclaimed that commerce is not just buying and selling, but also intercourse among nations and states, including navigation. He stated that Congress may make rules for this rich activity, and if its rules collide with state restrictions, the latter must give way. This ruling set a precedent for the interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause and the power of Congress to regulate commerce among the states.
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Judicial review
John Marshall, the fourth chief justice of the United States, served on the Supreme Court for 34 years, from 1801 to 1835. During his tenure, the Supreme Court grew in prominence and power, becoming a true co-equal to the executive and legislative branches. Marshall's interpretation of the Constitution and his expansion of the Court's powers set important precedents that continue to shape American law and governance.
One of the most significant ways Marshall interpreted the Constitution was through the doctrine of judicial review. In the landmark case of Marbury v. Madison (1803), Marshall ruled that acts of Congress could be reviewed and struck down if deemed unconstitutional. This established the principle that the Supreme Court had the authority to check the legislative power of Congress and the actions of the executive branch. Marshall declared that "a law repugnant to the Constitution is void", asserting the supremacy of the Constitution over any conflicting law.
In Marbury v. Madison, the Court ruled against William Marbury, who had sued to obtain a commission as a justice of the peace from the new Secretary of State, James Madison. Marshall found that Marbury was within his rights to sue, but crucially, he also ruled that a 1789 act allowing plaintiffs to petition the Supreme Court directly was unconstitutional. This was the first time the Supreme Court had declared a law passed by Congress as unconstitutional, setting a precedent for judicial review.
Another notable case that demonstrated Marshall's interpretation of the Constitution was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819). This case centred around the establishment of a national bank, with states arguing that the Constitution did not explicitly grant Congress this power. Marshall's interpretation of the "necessary and proper" clause in McCulloch v. Maryland expanded the powers of Congress, stating that as long as the end was "legitimate" and "within the scope of the Constitution", Congress could use "all means which are appropriate... which are not prohibited". This case also set the stage for the battle between the federal government and the states over the issue of regulating or outlawing slavery.
The Marshall Court also dealt with several cases involving the commerce clause in Article 1 of the Constitution, which grants Congress the power to regulate commerce among the states. In Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), the Court prohibited states from passing laws that interfered with the transportation of goods across state lines, bolstering the commerce clause. In Fletcher v. Peck (1810), the Court ruled in favour of individual property rights and contracts, dealing a blow to states' rights advocates. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819) further established the precedent that the Supreme Court could strike down state laws, particularly those related to states' regulation of corporations.
Through these rulings, the Marshall Court interpreted the Constitution in a way that expanded the powers of the Supreme Court, enhanced its position relative to other branches of government, and reinforced national supremacy. Marshall's intellectual prowess and leadership transformed the Supreme Court into a unified and dignified institution, shaping the course of American law and governance.
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Commerce clause
The Commerce Clause, as outlined in Article I, Section 8, Clause 3 of the US Constitution, grants Congress the power "to regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes".
Chief Justice John Marshall's opinion in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) upheld the nationalist definition of federal power, ruling that Congress could regulate many activities that affected interstate commerce. This case involved a dispute between two steamboat operators, one of whom had been granted a monopoly by the state of New York. The Court's decision forbade states from enacting legislation that would interfere with Congress's right to regulate commerce among the separate states.
The Gibbons v. Ogden ruling was based on the idea that the Commerce Clause gives Congress the power to regulate all "commercial intercourse" among the states, including the regulation of interstate commercial maritime routes. This interpretation gave the federal government considerable regulatory power, though the Court stopped short of adopting an overly expansive reading of the clause.
In the case of McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), Chief Justice Marshall insisted that Congress could not use its commerce power when there was no interstate problem to solve. However, in Darby, Justice Stone ruled out Marshall's inquiry into whether Congress was relying on the commerce clause power as a pretext for passing laws beyond the power of the federal government.
The interpretation of the Commerce Clause has evolved over time, with the Court's understanding of Congress's power under the Clause expanding dramatically during the New Deal era. This evolution saw the Court adopt a broader view of Congress's interstate commerce powers, upholding many of President Roosevelt's economic programs.
Questions over the range and applicability of the Commerce Clause have arisen in debates over the constitutionality of certain acts, such as the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ("PPACA").
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Frequently asked questions
Chief Justice John Marshall ruled that acts of Congress could be reviewed and struck down if deemed unconstitutional. This was the first time the Supreme Court had declared a law passed by Congress unconstitutional.
The Marshall Court's rulings established the Supreme Court as a co-equal branch of government, with the power to interpret the constitutionality of legislation and executive actions. This gave the Court the authority to check the legislative power of Congress and the power of executive branch officers.
The McCulloch v. Maryland case set a precedent for the federal government's power over the states. The Court's interpretation of the "necessary and proper" clause of the Constitution dramatically expanded the powers of Congress.
