Malcolm Rivera
France's transition from a constitutional monarchy to a dictatorship was a complex and tumultuous process. It began with the French Revolution in 1789, which challenged the absolute monarchy of King Louis XVI. The revolution led to the creation of a constitutional monarchy in 1791, with the National Assembly forcing the king to accept the French Constitution, which abolished nobility and declared all men equal before the law. However, this system was short-lived, as the monarchy was abolished in 1792, leading to the establishment of the French First Republic. The subsequent years witnessed the Reign of Terror, mass executions, and the rise of Napoleon, marking a period of reform, upheaval, and dictatorship. The complexities of this era, including the nature of Bonapartism and the role of referendums, are still debated by historians.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of transition from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy | 3 September 1791 |
| Date of transition from constitutional monarchy to republic | 21 September 1792 |
| Date of execution of Louis XVI | 21 January 1793 |
| Date of transition from republic to dictatorship | 1795 (following the onset of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1792) |
| Date of transition from dictatorship to monarchy | 1814 |
| Date of end of monarchy | 1848 |
| Type of dictatorship | "dictature de salut public" (dictatorship of public safety) |
| Type of monarchy | Constitutional monarchy (from 1791 to 1792) |
| Monarch during transition to constitutional monarchy | Louis XVI |
| Monarch during transition to republic | Louis XVI |
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What You'll Learn
The French Revolution and the end of the monarchy
The French Revolution (1789–99) brought about the end of the monarchy in France. The absolute monarchy, which had ruled France for 948 years, was forced to limit its power and become a provisional constitutional monarchy on 3 September 1791. This change was instigated by the National Constituent Assembly, who made King Louis XVI accept the French Constitution of 1791, thus establishing the Kingdom of the French.
The Constitution of 1791 was revolutionary, abolishing the nobility of France and declaring all men equal before the law. It also established a system of separation of powers, dividing powers among the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The king remained the head of the assembly, but his powers were now shared among the assembly members. This ensured that decisions were made in favour of the people.
However, this constitutional monarchy was short-lived. On 10 August 1792, the Tuileries Palace was stormed, and the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy the following day. The National Convention, elected under universal male suffrage, officially abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, proclaiming the French First Republic. This ended 203 years of consecutive Bourbon rule over France.
The role of the king was finally terminated with the execution of Louis XVI by guillotine on 21 January 1793, marking the beginning of the "Reign of Terror" and a period of mass executions. This was followed by the rise of Napoleon and the Napoleonic Wars, which brought about twenty-five years of reform, upheaval, dictatorship, and renewal.
The monarchy was briefly restored in 1814 by a coalition of European powers, but it did not last. The French Revolution of 1848 ended the monarchy in France once again, and the country remained a republic until the establishment of the Second Empire in 1852.
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The rise of Napoleon and the Napoleonic Wars
The French Revolution of 1789 brought down the Monarchy and the Ancien Régime, resulting in the beheading of King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette. This period, known as the Reign of Terror, was marked by bloodshed and extremism, with left-wing radical revolutionaries executing anyone deemed an enemy of the revolution. The National Assembly abolished the monarchy and established the First Republic (1792-1799).
Napoleon Bonaparte, a French military and political leader, rose to prominence during this tumultuous time. He proved his worth and loyalty to the Directory, the interim ruling government, and led successful campaigns during the Revolutionary Wars. In 1798, Napoleon invaded Egypt, annihilating Egyptian and Ottoman armies in a series of battles. His victories enhanced his popularity back in France, and upon his return in 1799, he installed himself as the First Consul in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, marking the fall of the Directory.
Napoleon reorganized the French army and launched a new assault against the European Coalition. By 1802, with Austria and Russia out of the war, the United Kingdom was forced to agree to the Treaty of Amiens, concluding the Revolutionary Wars. During this period, Napoleon consolidated his power as First Consul, weakening the influence of the other consuls and the Assemblies. On February 7, 1800, a public referendum confirmed a new constitution that vested all real power in the hands of the First Consul. This transformation from an aristocratic constitution to a dictatorship was approved by more than 99% of voters, according to the released results.
Napoleon's popularity was further bolstered by his accomplishments in the War of the Second Coalition and his promises of stability, order, and justice. He reorganized France to supply the men and money needed for wars and was known for his strict and efficient work habits. Napoleon's personality has been described as "hypnotic," and he was an inspiring leader on the battlefield.
In 1810, Napoleon married Marie-Louise, becoming the nephew of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette. This marriage marked an attempt to turn his dictatorship into the beginning of a new dynasty. Napoleon's regime cannot be solely defined as a military dictatorship, as it was a civilian regime with strong military influences. Military symbolism and organization were used to support the legitimacy of the imperial regime, and Napoleon himself spent months leading his armies and surrounded by decorated military officers. The Napoleonic regime was, therefore, a mix of civilian and military power, with a strong authoritarian leader at its helm.
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The First French Republic
The French Constitution of 1791 was revolutionary in its content. It abolished the nobility of France and declared all men to be equal before the law. The constitution also established a system of separation of powers, dividing powers among the legislature, executive, and judiciary. The king was the head of the assembly, but powers were now shared among the members of the assembly.
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The role of the National Assembly
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, marked the end of the monarchy in France and the rise of democracy. The role of the National Assembly was pivotal in this transformation.
The National Assembly, formed in 1789, was initially called the Estates-General, an elected assembly that had not been convened in 175 years. The Third Estate, which consisted of commoners, largely from the bourgeoisie, redefined themselves as the National Assembly, an assembly of the people. The Assembly invited the other estates to join them but made it clear that they intended to govern with or without them. The King, Louis XVI, tried to resist and even ordered the hall where the Assembly met to be closed. However, the Assembly persevered and drafted a constitution for a new regime, signalling the end of the absolute monarchy.
The National Assembly, now renamed the National Constituent Assembly, became the governing body of France. It was led by conservative foes of the revolution, known as "The Right", and the Monarchiens, who favoured a constitutional monarchy. The Assembly drafted and passed the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a fundamental document in the history of human and civil rights. It abolished feudalism and established a limited monarchy, with a clear separation of powers. The king was to name and dismiss his ministers, but sovereignty resided in the Legislative Assembly, which was elected by a system of indirect voting. The Assembly also restricted the franchise to "active" male citizens above the age of 25 who paid regular taxes.
The National Assembly's design for local government and administration proved to be one of the most lasting legacies of the Revolution. They redivided the nation's territory into départements of roughly equal size, creating a sense of national uniformity and integration. The Assembly also established a civil court in each district and a criminal court in each département, with judges elected by the people.
The National Assembly's role in governing France continued until the storming of the Tuileries Palace on 10 August 1792. The Legislative Assembly, facing pressure from the people, suspended the monarchy, and the newly elected National Convention, chosen by universal male suffrage, officially abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792, ending the reign of King Louis XVI and proclaiming a republic.
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The Constitution of 1791
The French Constitution of 1791 was the first written constitution in France, created after the collapse of the absolute monarchy of the Ancien Régime. It was drafted by the National Assembly, which was led by Mirabeau and Sieyes, and was reluctantly accepted by King Louis XVI in September 1791, thus transforming the absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy.
The franchise was restricted to "active" citizens, who were men over the age of 25 and paid regular taxes. They had political rights and could vote for electors and choose certain local officials directly. "Passive citizens", who made up the rest of the population, had only civil rights. This distinction was intolerable to radical deputies like Maximilien Robespierre, who could never be reconciled to the Constitution of 1791.
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Frequently asked questions
A march that started on the morning of October 5, 1789, among women in the marketplaces of Paris who were near rioting over the high price and scarcity of bread. Their demonstrations quickly became intertwined with the activities of revolutionaries, who were seeking liberal political reforms and a constitutional monarchy for France.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, led to the adoption of a written constitution in 1791 and the abolition of the monarchy a year later. It was replaced with the First French Republic.
Following the French Revolution, France experienced a period of upheaval, dictatorship, and wars. Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power in a coup d'état, establishing a dictatorship of public safety.
