Eleanor Finch
The US Constitution was influenced by the ideas of European political philosophers, including Enlightenment thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Locke's refutation of the divine right of Monarchy and his establishment of a theory where personal liberty could coexist with political order were particularly influential. The philosophy of government that guided the Framers of the Constitution incorporated three major political doctrines: natural rights, republicanism, and constitutionalism. These ideas were part of the common intellectual currency of eighteenth-century America and were influenced by the experiences of the 13 states and the British experience with mixed government.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Natural rights | People are born free and equal in their rights |
| Republicanism | Laws, rather than men, should be the final sanction and that government should be responsible to the governed |
| Constitutionalism | A social contract with limited powers and obligations to its creators |
| Classical | Control of power |
| Humanistic political philosophy | Tyranny of the minority over the majority |
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What You'll Learn
Influence of natural rights
The concept of natural rights has been a significant influence on the American political philosophy of constitutionalism. The idea of natural rights holds that individuals have inherent rights that exist independently of any legal system or political authority. These rights are considered universal and inalienable, belonging to all people by virtue of their humanity.
The philosophy of natural rights played a crucial role in shaping the thinking of the Founding Fathers and the political arrangements established by the US Constitution. The Founding Fathers, including George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson, were influenced by Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke, who is often credited with developing the theory of natural rights. Locke argued that individuals have natural rights to life, liberty, and property, and that the purpose of government is to protect these rights. This philosophy, along with the doctrines of republicanism and constitutionalism, guided the Founding Fathers' deliberations and informed their decisions.
The influence of natural rights can be seen in the Declaration of Independence, which asserts that ""all men are created equal" and are endowed with certain "unalienable Rights," including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This document, primarily authored by Thomas Jefferson, reflects the belief in natural rights as the foundation of legitimate political authority. The concept of natural rights also influenced the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen in 1789, further highlighting its impact on political and legal developments in the late 18th century.
While the original US Constitution did not explicitly enumerate all natural rights, they were implicitly protected. The Ninth Amendment, for example, is interpreted as protecting those natural rights not explicitly mentioned in the Constitution. The Bill of Rights, which was later added to the Constitution, explicitly protects the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. The Supreme Court has also made decisions based on unenumerated general moral principles, or natural rights, demonstrating the ongoing influence of this philosophy in American jurisprudence.
The concept of natural rights, however, has not been without its critics. Jeremy Bentham and Edmund Burke, for instance, criticized the idea of inalienable rights as groundless, arguing that rights arise from government actions or traditions. Despite these criticisms, the philosophy of natural rights continues to occupy an important place in American political thought and has had a profound influence on the development of the US Constitution and the protection of individual liberties.
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Classical republicanism
The term "republicanism" is used in two different but closely related senses in political theory and philosophy. Firstly, it refers to a loose tradition or family of writers in the history of Western political thought, including Machiavelli and his fifteenth-century Italian predecessors, the English republicans Milton, Harrington, Sidney, and others. These writers emphasise the importance of civic virtue and political participation, the dangers of corruption, the benefits of a mixed constitution, and the rule of law. Secondly, republicanism refers to the core values that citizenry in a republic have or ought to have. These values include liberty, inalienable individual rights, recognising the sovereignty of the people as the source of all authority in law, rejecting monarchy, aristocracy, and hereditary political power, virtue and faithfulness in the performance of civic duties, and vilification of corruption.
The values and ideals of republicanism are foundational to the US Constitution and history. The US Constitution mentions the term "republic" once, in section four of Article Four, stating, "The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government...". Classical republicanism was influenced by the Corsican Republic, which lasted from 1755 to 1769 and was considered an early example of enlightened constitutional republicanism. The Corsican Republic was an experiment in a new type of popular and democratic government, where sovereign people fought for liberty and enshrined it constitutionally. This influenced the American revolutionaries, with the Sons of Liberty drawing direct inspiration from Pascal Paoli, the leader of the Corsican Republic.
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John Locke's political philosophy
John Locke (1632–1704) is among the most influential political philosophers of the modern period. His work greatly affected the development of political philosophy, particularly in the United States. Locke's writings influenced Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American Revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke's political-legal principles continue to influence the theory and practice of limited representative government and the protection of basic rights and freedoms under the rule of law.
Locke's political philosophy is centred around the concept of natural law and natural rights. The idea of natural law existed long before Locke, expressing the notion that certain moral truths are universally applicable, regardless of specific locations or agreements. Locke's philosophy of natural rights asserts that people have rights, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, that are independent of the laws of any particular society. He argued that personal liberty could coexist with political order, and that labour is the origin and justification for property ownership.
In his "Two Treatises of Government", Locke refuted the divine right of Monarchy, arguing that all men are born free and equal. He defended the claim that men are naturally free and equal against assertions that God had made all people naturally subject to a monarch. According to Locke, government is a social contract with limited powers and obligations to its citizens. The social contract theory posits that people in the state of nature conditionally transfer some of their rights to the government to ensure the stable enjoyment of their lives, liberty, and property.
Locke's philosophy also emphasised the importance of religious tolerance. Writing in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, Locke argued that earthly judges, states, and human beings cannot reliably evaluate the truth claims of competing religious standpoints. He maintained that even if they could, enforcing a single 'true religion' through violence would not be effective, as belief cannot be compelled by force. Instead, he advocated for religious diversity, suggesting that coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder.
Locke's ideas about natural rights and government were considered revolutionary for his time in English history. His philosophy influenced the thinking of the founding fathers of the United States, including George Washington, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. They concurred with Locke's belief that laws, rather than men, should be the final sanction and that the government should be responsible to the governed. Adams, in particular, prescribed a constitution with a balance of executive and legislative powers checked by an independent judiciary.
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European Enlightenment thinkers
The US Constitution was influenced by the ideas of European Enlightenment thinkers, including Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu. These philosophers advocated for radical political ideas that shaped the thinking of the Founding Fathers and the principles enshrined in the Constitution.
John Locke, considered by many historians as the greatest individual influence on the formation of the US, refuted the divine right of monarchy and established a theory where personal liberty could coexist with political order. In his work, Locke argued that labour is the origin and justification for property, and that contract or consent is the basis for government, with personal freedom as the underlying value. Locke's ideals of human rights, summed up by the phrase "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness", found a strong advocate in Thomas Jefferson.
Thomas Hobbes, another influential Enlightenment thinker, proposed a social contract theory in which individuals in a state of nature surrender their rights to a central authority to establish political order and ensure mutual protection.
French philosopher Rousseau also contributed to the Enlightenment discourse with his ideas on the social contract and the importance of individual freedom and equality.
The ideas of these European Enlightenment thinkers had a profound impact on the political thinking of Americans in the eighteenth century. The concepts of natural rights, republicanism, and constitutionalism, which were part of the common intellectual currency of the time, guided the Framers' deliberations and informed their choices among competing solutions to pressing problems.
Another significant influence from the European continent was Montesquieu, who emphasised the need for balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny. This idea of checks and balances reflected the influence of Polybius' 2nd-century BC treatise on the constitution of the Roman Republic.
In conclusion, the US Constitution was shaped by the radical and political ideas of European Enlightenment thinkers. These philosophers challenged traditional notions of power and proposed theories that emphasised individual rights, liberty, and balanced governance. Their ideas inspired the Founding Fathers and laid the foundation for a nation built on the principles of freedom, equality, and the rule of law.
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Montesquieu's emphasis on balanced forces
Montesquieu, or Charles Louis de Secondat, was a French judge, historian, political philosopher, and man of letters. He is best known for his theory of the separation of powers, which has been implemented in many constitutions worldwide. Montesquieu's work, particularly his anonymously published "The Spirit of Law" (1748), influenced the Founding Fathers of the United States in drafting the US Constitution.
Montesquieu's philosophy emphasised balanced forces within a government. He identified three main forms of government: monarchies, republics, and despotisms. According to him, monarchies (headed by a hereditary figure like a king or queen) rely on the principle of honour; republics (headed by popularly elected leaders) rely on virtue; and despotisms (headed by despots) rely on fear.
Montesquieu believed that free governments, such as monarchies and republics, required constitutional arrangements that established checks and balances. He wrote that the principle of despotic government is subject to continual corruption due to its inherently corrupt nature. In a despotic state, property is not secure, commerce does not flourish, and the people must be kept in a state of fear through the threat of punishment.
Montesquieu's view of the functions of government was closer to modern usage than his predecessors. He was one of the first writers to use the term "executive" in a modern sense, distinguishing it from the legislative and judicial functions. He emphasised the importance of an independent judiciary, giving it a more prominent position in his theory than previous writers.
Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers and balanced forces influenced American founders like James Madison, who was inspired by Montesquieu's philosophy that "government should be set up so that no man need be afraid of another". Madison and other Founding Fathers sought to create a free and stable foundation for their new national government, recognising the need for a clearly defined and balanced separation of powers.
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Frequently asked questions
The core beliefs of European political philosophers that influenced the US Constitution included natural rights, republicanism, and constitutionalism.
John Locke is often credited as the greatest influence on the US Constitution. Other European political philosophers who influenced the US Constitution include Thomas Hobbes, Rousseau, and Montesquieu.
The key ideas that influenced the US Constitution included the belief that people have the right to choose their government and change it when it is no longer effective. This was a radical departure from the idea of divine rule that was prevalent in 1776 and 1789.
The ideas of European political philosophers shaped the US Constitution by providing a philosophical framework for the founding fathers to build upon. The influence of these ideas led an American historian to write, "In the era of the American Revolution, more than at any other time in our history, ideas dominated our politics."
