Omar Bennett
Big stick diplomacy, big stick ideology, big stick philosophy, or big stick policy refers to a political approach used by the 26th president of the United States, Theodore Roosevelt. The term big stick was used by the American press during his time to describe his foreign policy positions, which were characterized by peaceful negotiation alongside the threat of military action. This approach had a significant impact on various countries, particularly in Latin America and Asia. In Latin America, Roosevelt's strong military presence allowed him to act on any threats, while in Asia, he sought to maintain a balance of power among the countries. Roosevelt's big stick diplomacy also played a role in canal-related incidents in Nicaragua and Panama, as well as in mediating peace negotiations between Russia and Japan.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Countries affected by Big Stick Diplomacy | Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Venezuela, Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic), Japan, Russia, France, Germany |
| Roosevelt's approach to Big Stick Diplomacy | Negotiating peacefully but also having strength in case things go wrong; the threat, rather than the outright use, of military force |
| Roosevelt's foreign policy goals | To maintain regional stability and prevent European intervention in the Americas; to act as a "world policeman" and correct any wrongdoing by Latin American nations |
| Results of Big Stick Diplomacy | Panama became an American protectorate until 1939; Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize for mediating peace between Russia and Japan |
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What You'll Learn
Canal construction in Panama and Nicaragua
The construction of the Panama Canal was a significant event that highlighted the application of "big stick diplomacy" by the United States in the region. The canal, which opened in 1914, connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and has served as a crucial waterway for shipping and trade.
The idea of constructing a canal through Central America dates back to the early colonial era. Several attempts were made to build a canal across Nicaragua, utilizing the San Juan River as an access route to Lake Nicaragua. In the mid-19th century, Napoleon III wrote about the feasibility of such a project. The concept gained traction, and in 1876, the Geographical Society of Paris formed a committee to seek international cooperation for studies to improve geographical knowledge of the region for canal construction.
However, the United States' acquisition of French interests in the Panama Canal project in the early 20th century shifted the focus away from Nicaragua. This decision was influenced by concerns over volcanic activity at the Momotombo volcano in Nicaragua, which was strategically amplified by lobbyists favoring the Panama route. The eruption of a volcano in Martinique in 1902 and subsequent lobbying efforts led by William Nelson Cromwell contributed to the United States Congress ultimately voting in favor of constructing the canal in Panama by a narrow margin.
Despite the decision to build the Panama Canal, discussions and attempts to construct a canal in Nicaragua have persisted. In 2013, the Nicaraguan government approved a bill granting a 50-year concession to the Hong Kong Nicaragua Canal Development Investment Company (HKND Group) to manage and develop a Nicaraguan canal. The proposed canal route through Nicaragua and Lake Nicaragua aimed to provide an alternative to the Panama Canal, reducing the water distance between New York and San Francisco by nearly 800 kilometers. However, the project faced challenges, and by 2018, it was widely considered defunct, despite assertions from the Nicaraguan government that land expropriations for the project would continue.
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Latin America and the Monroe Doctrine
Big Stick Diplomacy, or the Big Stick Ideology, was a political approach used by Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States. The term "big stick" was used by the American press and historians to describe Roosevelt's foreign policy positions, which he described as "the exercise of intelligent forethought and of decisive action sufficiently far in advance of any likely crisis". This approach involved negotiating peacefully while also demonstrating military strength and being prepared to use it if necessary.
Now, let's focus on the impact of Big Stick Diplomacy on Latin America through the lens of the Monroe Doctrine:
The Monroe Doctrine was established in 1823 by President James Monroe as a foreign policy framework for the Western Hemisphere. It asserted that the Western Hemisphere was no longer open to colonisation by European powers and that the independent nations of the Americas should be free from European interference. This doctrine was initially passive, aiming to curb European influence and prevent recolonisation in the Western Hemisphere. However, by the 20th century, with the rise of Theodore Roosevelt's Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the United States adopted a more assertive stance, willing to intervene unilaterally in Latin America.
The reaction in Latin America to the Monroe Doctrine was complex. On the one hand, leaders such as Simón Bolívar and others involved in the emancipation movement expressed gratitude for the doctrine, recognising it as a tool to support their independence from European colonial powers. They understood the limitations of the doctrine, given the relatively weak position of the United States at the time without British support. On the other hand, there was also suspicion and scepticism. Inaction by the United States when the Monroe Doctrine was violated, such as during the French and British naval blockade of Argentina in the 1840s, confirmed these suspicions.
The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine significantly impacted Latin America. For example, in 1901, the United States pressured Nicaragua's government to approve a canal, promising to "provide sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity". However, when a problem of court jurisdiction arose, the United States did not actively support Nicaragua, and the canal was ultimately built in Panama. Theodore Roosevelt's policy in Latin America and the Caribbean was characterised by his "Big Stick" approach, demonstrating his willingness to use military force to assert US interests in the region.
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Venezuela and European intervention
In the early 1900s, Venezuela experienced a crisis that involved a naval blockade imposed by Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy. This was due to President Cipriano Castro's refusal to pay foreign debts and compensate European citizens for damages incurred during the recent Venezuelan civil wars. Castro expected the United States to intervene and prevent European military intervention based on the Monroe Doctrine. However, US President Theodore Roosevelt interpreted the Monroe Doctrine differently, believing it applied only to European seizure of territory rather than intervention in general. This led to the US remaining officially neutral and allowing the blockade to proceed without objection.
The Venezuelan crisis of 1902-1903 significantly impacted the country's economy and international relations. The blockade effectively disabled Venezuela's small navy, but Castro refused to concede, instead agreeing to submit some claims to international arbitration. This episode contributed to the development of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which asserted the United States' right to intervene and "stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America to prevent European intervention.
The Roosevelt Corollary, also known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, was a significant shift in US foreign policy. It gave the United States the right to intervene in the economic affairs of small countries in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts. This policy was designed to prevent European powers from increasing their influence in the region and to assert US dominance. The corollary was a response to the fear that decisions by the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague could encourage future European intervention and was a more aggressive stance compared to the passive Monroe Doctrine of 1823.
The Venezuelan crisis and the Roosevelt Corollary had lasting repercussions for Venezuela and other countries in the region. It set a precedent for US intervention in Latin America, which continued into the 20th and 21st centuries. For example, in 2002, the US tacitly approved a coup attempt against Venezuelan leader Hugo Chavez, and in 2019, the US recognized opposition leader Juan Guaidó as the interim president of Venezuela, threatening military intervention. These actions reflect a continued US interest in influencing the politics and economics of Venezuela and other Latin American countries.
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The Dominican Republic and debt issues
Big stick diplomacy was a political approach used by Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th president of the United States. It involved negotiating peacefully while also having the strength of the military as a backup in case things went wrong. This approach was used by the US in its relations with Latin America and the Caribbean.
Now, onto the Dominican Republic and its debt issues. The Dominican Republic has had a history of dealing with public debt and financial challenges. In the early 20th century, under President Trujillo, the country faced issues with its foreign debt. Trujillo sought to address this by proposing an exchange of existing bonds for new conversion bonds with a higher interest rate of 6% and improved terms. This was intended to help refund the floating debt incurred by previous administrations. The Dominican Republic's strong relationship with the United States, including the Dominican-American Convention, played a role in managing its debt obligations.
In more recent times, the Dominican Republic has continued to face debt challenges. In 2024, the country's public debt remained high, with 56% of it denominated in foreign currencies. The government took steps to reduce this external debt, such as issuing peso-denominated bonds in international markets. The current account deficit improved due to robust exports, tourism, and reduced energy costs. However, the economy remains vulnerable to factors like the US economic slowdown and its impact on tourism and exports.
Looking ahead, the Dominican Republic's national debt is projected to increase between 2024 and 2029, potentially reaching a peak in 2029. The government has implemented measures to manage this, such as the Fiscal Responsibility Law, which aims to control spending growth and anchor public debt at 40% of GDP by 2035. While tax reform efforts have faced setbacks, there is a focus on combating tax evasion to boost revenue. The country's economic health is also influenced by its trade relationships, including the CAFTA-DR regional free-trade agreement and its impact on exports and remittances.
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East Asia and peace negotiations
Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy in East Asia differed from his approach in Latin America. In Latin America, the US had a strong military presence, allowing Roosevelt to more easily act on his threats of military action. In Asia, however, the United States had a lesser military presence, so Roosevelt sought to maintain a balance of power, ensuring no single Asian country grew too powerful. When the power balance shifted, as in the case of the Russo-Japanese War, Roosevelt intervened to restore equilibrium.
Roosevelt's "big stick" diplomacy was characterized by his famous phrase, "speak softly and carry a big stick; you will go far." This approach involved negotiating peacefully while also possessing the strength and credibility of the military as a backup. Roosevelt believed that due to America's recent military successes, it was unnecessary to use force outright to achieve foreign policy goals, as long as the military could threaten it. This strategy aimed to keep the United States out of military conflicts while still allowing it to exert influence and pursue its interests.
In Latin America, Roosevelt's big stick diplomacy often took the form of intervening in countries' economic and political affairs to prevent European intervention and maintain regional stability. For example, in Venezuela, he demanded arbitration to resolve a dispute between the country and its European creditors, and in Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic), he ordered an American collector to assume control of customs houses to avoid possible European military action over debt collection. Roosevelt's policies in Latin America, including the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, often led to resentment in the region due to their aggressiveness.
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Frequently asked questions
In 1901, Secretary of State John Hay pressed the Nicaraguan Government for approval of a canal. The US accepted Nicaragua's counteroffer of $6 million in ratification and $100,000 annually, in addition to promises to "provide sovereignty, independence, and territorial integrity". However, a problem of court jurisdiction arose, and the US did not have legal jurisdiction in the land of the future canal.
Roosevelt supported the Panamanian people in their revolt against Colombia and sent American battleships to the coast of Colombia to prevent them from quelling the uprising. Following the successful revolution, Panama became an American protectorate until 1939.
In 1902, Roosevelt demanded that Germany and Britain agree to arbitration to resolve a dispute over their ships blockading Venezuela's coastline.
