Eleanor Finch
The 1890 Mississippi Constitution was created by a convention composed almost entirely of Democrats to disenfranchise, isolate, and marginalize the state's African American population. It imposed a poll tax and arbitrary literacy tests for voting, sections designed to prevent African Americans from voting. In 1890, there were 70,000 more African-American voters in Mississippi than white voters. By 1892, only 8,615 African Americans were eligible to vote out of 76,742 total eligible voters. The constitution also segregated students of different races into separate schools, with Black schools being purposely underfunded. African Americans responded to the 1890 Mississippi Constitution with legal challenges, such as Williams v. Mississippi (1898), in which an African American argued that he had been harmed by the constitution's provision that made it difficult for African Americans to serve on juries.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Date of Mississippi Constitution | November 1, 1890 |
| Number of African-American voters in Mississippi before the Constitution | 70,000 more than white voters |
| Number of African-American voters in Mississippi after the Constitution | 8,615 out of 76,742 eligible voters |
| Purpose of the Constitution | To prevent African Americans from voting, isolate and marginalize them |
| Methods | Poll tax, arbitrary literacy tests, segregation in schools, violence, terrorism, legal means |
| Impact | End of democratic progress, setback for voter suppression, ruled as discriminatory and unconstitutional |
| Repeal | Provisions repealed in 1975, some in the 1970s and 1980s |
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What You'll Learn
- African Americans were prevented from voting
- African Americans were forced to attend underfunded, segregated schools
- African Americans were prohibited from marrying people of other ethnic groups
- African Americans were prevented from bearing arms for self-defence
- African Americans were barred from serving on juries
African Americans were prevented from voting
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to prevent African Americans from voting. This was achieved through the introduction of poll taxes and literacy tests, which served as barriers to suffrage. In 1890, there were 70,000 more African-American voters in Mississippi than white voters. By 1892, only two years later, that number had plummeted to 8,615 black voters out of 76,742 eligible voters. This drastic decrease illustrates the effectiveness of the new constitution in disenfranchising African Americans.
The constitution was created by a convention composed almost entirely of Democrats, with the explicit purpose of marginalizing and isolating the state's African American population. The provisions of the new constitution were ratified by the convention itself, without seeking approval from the people of Mississippi, as had been done with previous constitutions. This unilateral action by the convention highlights the intent to disenfranchise African Americans through legal means.
The poll tax and literacy tests were not the only tools used to prevent African Americans from voting. Intimidation and threats of violence were also prevalent. White supremacists in Vicksburg, for example, formed the "White Man's party," patrolling the streets with guns and intimidating Black voters into staying home on election day. This tactic successfully kept African Americans from voting and contributed to the replacement of Republican incumbents by Democrats committed to white supremacy in the 1875 elections.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 also had broader implications beyond the state. It set a precedent for other Southern states to follow suit and adopt similar voter-suppression statutes. This wave of discriminatory legislation rolled back the democratic progress made during the Reconstruction era, when African Americans had gained the right to vote and hold public office. The provisions of the Mississippi Constitution that prevented African Americans from voting were finally repealed in the 1970s and 1980s, nearly a century after they were enacted.
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African Americans were forced to attend underfunded, segregated schools
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to disenfranchise, isolate, and marginalize the state's African American population. One of the ways this was achieved was through the segregation of schools and the deliberate underfunding of educational resources for African American students.
The constitution mandated that "separate schools shall be maintained for children of the white and colored races." This segregation was enforced, and African American children were forced to attend underfunded and inferior schools. The underfunding of these schools was a deliberate strategy to deny African American students equal educational opportunities. This was part of a broader effort to suppress the rights of African Americans and prevent them from participating fully in society.
The impact of these discriminatory education policies was significant. African American children were provided with inferior educational resources, impacting their learning and future opportunities. The segregation of schools also contributed to the broader segregation and marginalization of the African American community in Mississippi. This underfunding of education was just one aspect of the broader effort to disenfranchise African Americans in Mississippi, which also included voter suppression tactics such as poll taxes and literacy tests.
The response to these discriminatory education policies was not immediate. It wasn't until the 1950s and 1960s that the United States government investigated these practices, and the Supreme Court ruled that they violated the rights guaranteed to all citizens under the US Constitution. However, it took several more decades for these discriminatory clauses to be formally removed from the state's constitution in the 1970s and 1980s.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 and its enforcement of segregated, underfunded schools for African American children was a blatant form of racial discrimination. It denied equal opportunities and access to quality education, contributing to broader efforts to marginalize and oppress African Americans in Mississippi and across the United States during this period.
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African Americans were prohibited from marrying people of other ethnic groups
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was created in the age of Jim Crow segregation. It was designed to disenfranchise, isolate, and marginalize the state's African American population. The constitution introduced a poll tax and arbitrary literacy tests for voting, sections designed to prevent African Americans from voting. In 1890, there were 70,000 more African-American voters in Mississippi than white ones. By 1892, only 8,615 African Americans were able to vote out of 76,742 eligible voters.
The constitution also prohibited African Americans from marrying people of other ethnic groups. This was part of a broader effort to prevent African Americans from participating in the state's civil society. The constitution forced African Americans to attend underfunded and deliberately substandard schools, and they were not allowed to serve on juries.
African Americans responded to the Mississippi Constitution of 1890 in various ways. Some, like Sidney D. Redmond, a black lawyer from Jackson and the chairman of the Mississippi Republican Party, attempted to investigate and challenge the disenfranchisement of black voters in the state. Redmond sent letters of inquiry to several Mississippi counties, but they went unanswered. When he inquired by telephone, many counties responded that they did not "allow niggers to register" to vote.
Violence was also present in the response to the constitution. F. M. B. “Marsh” Cook, a white man, was killed for standing up against the white supremacist 1890 Mississippi Constitutional Convention. Additionally, there was violence against African Americans on election days, with White supremacists in Vicksburg patrolling the streets with guns and intimidating Black voters into staying home.
African Americans also challenged the constitution through the courts. In Williams v. Mississippi (1898), Williams, an African American convicted of murder, argued that he had been harmed by the section of the 1890 constitution that made it difficult for African Americans to serve on juries. The US Supreme Court ruled against Williams, stating that he had not proved his case that the Mississippi constitution harmed African Americans directly. However, in the 1950s and 1960s, following investigations by the United States government, the US Supreme Court ruled that the discriminatory provisions of the Mississippi Constitution violated the rights guaranteed to American citizens under the US Constitution. These provisions were finally repealed in the 1970s and 1980s, nearly a century after they were enacted.
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African Americans were prevented from bearing arms for self-defence
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was designed to disenfranchise, isolate, and marginalize the state's African American population. One of the many ways it did so was by preventing African Americans from bearing arms for self-defence. This was part of a broader history of attempts by Southern whites to disarm African Americans, dating back to laws enacted by the Virginia General Assembly in 1680, which made it illegal for any black person to carry any type of weapon.
The right to bear arms for self-defence has been a contentious issue in the African American community, with a rich history of both peaceful protests and armed resistance. While the civil rights movement is often associated with nonviolent resistance, such as the campaigns of Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., there is also a long tradition of African Americans exercising their Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms for self-defence. For instance, the original NAACP and the Black Panthers of the 1960s, as well as more recent groups like the Huey Newton Gun Club, have all advocated for the right to armed self-defence.
African Americans have historically been aware of the cost and tactical range of violence in their struggle for liberty, and while they have often employed nonviolent tactics, they have also resisted by "any means necessary". Prior to the Civil War, there were numerous attempted slave revolts, and during the Civil Rights Movement, armed escorts were provided for activists like Emmett Till's mother, Mamie Elizabeth Till-Mobley, and John Lewis, to protect them from violent attacks by white supremacists and law enforcement.
The Second Amendment to the United States Constitution protects the right of individuals to keep and bear arms, and this right has been affirmed by the Supreme Court in rulings such as District of Columbia v. Heller (2008). However, despite this federal protection, the Mississippi Constitution of 1890 specifically prohibited African Americans from bearing arms, further entrenching their second-class status and leaving them vulnerable to violence and intimidation.
It wasn't until the 1950s and 1960s that the United States government investigated and ruled that these discriminatory provisions in the Mississippi Constitution violated the rights guaranteed to all citizens under the United States Constitution. It then took another two decades for these provisions to be formally removed from the state's constitution in the 1970s and 1980s, nearly a century after they were enacted.
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African Americans were barred from serving on juries
The 1890 Mississippi Constitution was designed to prevent African Americans from voting and holding political office. It was created by a convention composed almost entirely of white Democrats, and it replaced the 1868 constitution, which had granted African Americans full citizenship rights, including the right to vote and hold office.
The 1890 constitution introduced a poll tax and literacy tests for voting, which were designed to disenfranchise African Americans and some poor whites. It also forced them to attend underfunded and inferior segregated schools, and prohibited interracial marriage. These measures were enforced through violence and intimidation, with white supremacist groups like the "White Man's Party" patrolling the streets with guns and threatening Black voters.
African Americans were also barred from serving on juries, as potential jurors were selected from the voting lists. With the constitution making it difficult for African Americans to register to vote, few, if any, were eligible for jury duty. This was challenged in the courts by an African American man named Williams, who had been convicted of murder. He argued that the 1890 constitution had harmed him by preventing African Americans from serving on juries. However, the US Supreme Court ruled against him in Williams v. Mississippi (1898), stating that he had not proven his case.
The effects of the 1890 constitution were significant. By 1892, the number of African American voters in Mississippi had dropped drastically, and attempts by Black lawyers to investigate this disenfranchisement were ignored or met with racist refusals. It would take until the 1970s and the US civil rights movement for these discriminatory provisions, including the ban on African Americans serving on juries, to be formally removed from the state's constitution.
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Frequently asked questions
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was a legal document created by a convention of mostly Democrats to prevent African Americans from voting and participating in civil society. It imposed poll taxes and literacy tests as requirements for voting, segregated schools, and prohibited interracial marriage and gun ownership for African Americans.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 was highly effective in disenfranchising African American voters. In just two years, the number of African American voters in Mississippi dropped from 70,000 more than white voters to only 8,615 out of 76,742 eligible voters. This success in Mississippi set a precedent for other Southern states, which soon adopted similar voter suppression measures.
The Mississippi Constitution of 1890 had far-reaching consequences beyond voter suppression. It legalized segregation in schools and public accommodations, such as hotels, and ensured that Black schools were deliberately underfunded and inferior to white schools. Additionally, it contributed to the end of the Reconstruction era in Mississippi, reversing the democratic progress made after the Civil War.
African Americans challenged the Mississippi Constitution of 1890 through legal and political means. Litigation efforts, such as Williams v. Mississippi (1898), contested the constitutionality of the document's restrictive provisions. Additionally, there was collaboration between African Americans and some white farmers, challenging the traditional racial alliances in the state. However, these efforts faced violent responses from white Mississippians determined to protect white supremacy.
