Who Really Signed The Constitution?

The United States Constitution, signed in 1787 by 39 men, is a document that established the federal government and its branches, and governs the people of the United States. Notably, all 39 of these men were white, property-owning individuals. This is despite the fact that the Constitution is meant to protect the rights of the people, and upholds the principle that all individuals, regardless of colour, sex, national origin, or religion, are equal in the possession of rights that governments are instituted to protect. The absence of any mention of race in the Constitution has been interpreted as a deliberate choice by the Founding Fathers to exclude any reference to the ugly fact of black slavery, which was given constitutional status.

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The US Constitution was signed by 39 men, all of whom were white

The US Constitution, signed on September 17, 1787, is a document that established the federal government of the United States, its branches, and governs the people of the United States. The Constitution was signed by 39 men, all of whom were white.

The absence of any mention of race in the original Constitution is notable, especially given the prevalence of racism and black slavery in American society at the time. The Constitution's silence on race is often interpreted as a commitment to equality and individual rights, regardless of colour, sex, national origin, or religion. This interpretation is supported by the 14th Amendment, which granted African Americans the same constitutional rights as all American citizens.

However, it is important to acknowledge that the original Constitution did not define voting rights for citizens, and until the 15th Amendment in 1870, only white men were allowed to vote. The 15th Amendment extended voting rights to men of all races, but it was not enough to overcome state-level barriers and discriminatory practices that continued to deny African Americans their right to vote.

The struggle for voting rights among African Americans and other people of colour in the United States has been a long and ongoing battle. Despite the absence of explicit racial restrictions in the original Constitution, systemic racism and discriminatory laws, such as the "Black Codes" in the South, created significant obstacles to equal rights and participation in democracy for people of colour.

It is worth noting that the Constitution has been amended and interpreted over time to better align with the principles of equality and justice for all. The 15th Amendment, the 24th Amendment, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 are examples of efforts to address racial inequalities and expand voting rights to all citizens, regardless of race.

The 15th Amendment (1870) granted African American men the right to vote

The 15th Amendment, passed by Congress on February 26, 1869, and ratified on February 3, 1870, was a significant step forward for African American men, as it granted them the right to vote. This amendment, which emerged during the Reconstruction Era following the Civil War, was championed by former abolitionists and Radical Republicans in Congress. It represented a pivotal moment in the struggle for racial equality, ensuring that the right to vote could not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state based on race, colour, or previous servitude.

The 15th Amendment marked a shift from the past, when only white men were allowed to vote due to the absence of voting rights definitions in the original U.S. Constitution. This amendment, with its explicit focus on race and voting rights, set in motion a process of empowering African American men to participate in the democratic process.

While the 15th Amendment was a milestone, it did not immediately eradicate voting disparities. African Americans continued to face obstacles such as discriminatory state constitutions and laws, poll taxes, literacy tests, and the notorious ""grandfather clause,"" which restricted voting rights to those whose male ancestors had been allowed to vote before a certain date, effectively excluding African Americans.

The struggle for voting rights for African Americans extended beyond the 15th Amendment. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the National Urban League, and civil rights leaders like Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. DuBois, and A. Philip Randolph tirelessly worked to secure and enhance voting rights. Their efforts culminated in the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which enforced voting rights for adult citizens regardless of race or gender and was further strengthened by the 24th Amendment, ratified in 1964, which prohibited the use of poll taxes in federal elections.

Despite these advancements, challenges persisted. The Supreme Court's decision in Shelby County v. Holder in 2013 ruled a key provision of the Voting Rights Act unconstitutional, making it easier for states to enact discriminatory voting practices. Nevertheless, the 15th Amendment laid the foundation for continued advocacy and legal battles to ensure that African Americans could fully exercise their right to vote, contributing to the ongoing journey towards a more inclusive and equitable democracy.

The 14th Amendment (1868) gave African Americans citizenship and legal equality

The 14th Amendment, passed by Congress on June 13, 1866, and ratified on July 9, 1868, was designed to grant citizenship and legal equality to African Americans. The amendment was part of a series of measures taken during the Reconstruction era to guarantee equal civil and legal rights to Black citizens.

The 14th Amendment states that "All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." This provision extended citizenship to formerly enslaved people and ensured that no state could make or enforce any law that abridged the privileges or immunities of US citizens. Additionally, it guaranteed due process of law and equal protection under the law, prohibiting states from depriving any person of "life, liberty, or property" without due process.

The amendment was a response to the issues affecting freed slaves following the American Civil War. During this period, Congress debated the rights of former slaves, who had been emancipated by the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment, which formally abolished slavery. Despite these advancements, African Americans continued to face disenfranchisement and infringement on their civil rights, particularly in the Southern states.

The 14th Amendment played a crucial role in addressing racial discrimination and segregation. It served as the legal basis for landmark Supreme Court decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education (1954), which prohibited racial segregation in public schools, and Loving v. Virginia (1967), which ended interracial marriage bans. The amendment also had a significant impact on voting rights. While it did not directly address voting rights, it laid the groundwork for subsequent amendments and legislation, such as the 15th Amendment (1870), which granted African American men the right to vote, and the 19th Amendment (1920), which ensured equal voting rights for women.

The 14th Amendment's impact on civil rights extended beyond African Americans. For example, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the Court held that a Chinese student was not denied equal protection by being classified and schooled with African Americans rather than whites. However, this case also upheld the "separate but equal" doctrine, which was later formally abandoned in Brown v. Board of Education, marking a significant shift in the interpretation of the 14th Amendment towards ensuring equal protection regardless of race.

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Native Americans were not US citizens until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924

The United States was founded on a set of ideals, including the notion that "all men are created equal." However, this principle did not extend to people of colour, including Native Americans, who were systematically excluded from the rights and privileges afforded to white male citizens. Despite having inhabited the land that became the United States for thousands of years, Native Americans were not considered US citizens until the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.

The Naturalization Act of 1790 restricted citizenship to "free white persons," explicitly excluding Native Americans and other people of colour from the rights and privileges of citizenship. The Founding Fathers envisioned a civic arena exclusive to propertied white men, and this discriminatory mindset persisted for centuries.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, various legislative acts and court rulings further marginalized Native Americans. The Dawes Severalty Act of 1887, for example, attempted to assimilate Native Americans by redistributing tribal lands to heads of families, resulting in the loss of a significant portion of their land. The Dawes Act also provided a pathway to citizenship for Native Americans who accepted individual land grants, but this came at the cost of their cultural identity and communal way of life.

Despite these concessions, Native Americans were still not considered citizens by birth. In 1884, the Supreme Court ruled in Elk v. Wilkins that Native Americans were not citizens, even after the 14th Amendment granted citizenship to anyone born in the US. This ruling underscored the government's reluctance to recognize the birthright citizenship of Native Americans.

It wasn't until June 2, 1924, that President Calvin Coolidge signed the Indian Citizenship Act, granting citizenship to all Native Americans born in the US. This Act marked a significant turning point in the long struggle for Native American civil rights. However, it is important to note that even after the Indian Citizenship Act, Native Americans continued to face barriers to voting and other forms of discrimination. Some states barred Native Americans from voting until the passage of the 1965 Voting Rights Act, and they continue to face challenges today due to a lack of voting resources and strict voter ID laws.

The Civil Rights Act of 1874 aimed to prevent inequality and discrimination based on race

No people of colour signed the US Constitution. In fact, until 1870, only white men were allowed to vote. The Fifteenth Amendment, ratified in 1870, extended voting rights to men of all races.

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was enacted on March 1, 1875, and affirmed the "equality of all men before the law". It prohibited racial discrimination in public places and facilities, such as restaurants and public transportation. The law also made it a crime for anyone to facilitate the denial of such accommodations or services based on colour, race, or "previous condition of servitude". All lawsuits arising under the Civil Rights Act were to be tried in federal courts, although the act was seldom enforced.

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last major Reconstruction statute and the last federal civil rights law enacted until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957. It was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875 as a memorial to Senator Charles Sumner, a dominant Radical Republican who had died. It was signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant, although he had wanted a different law to help suppress election-related violence against Blacks and Republicans in the South.

The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was largely ineffective, as Grant's administration did not enforce it. In 1883, the Supreme Court ruled that the public accommodation sections of the act were unconstitutional, stating that Congress did not have the power to regulate private persons or corporations under the Equal Protection Clause. This ruling nullified the Civil Rights Act and undermined the impact of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments in addressing uncodified racial discrimination.

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