Eleanor Finch
The Middle East has long been a centre of world affairs due to its unique geographical and strategic position, its role as the birthplace of three major monotheistic religions, and its vast oil reserves. The region has been plagued by conflict and volatility, with a complex web of intra-state and inter-state tensions. Diplomacy has been employed as a tool to navigate these challenges and prevent local conflicts from escalating into wider wars that could destabilize the region and impact global stability. The effectiveness of diplomacy in the Middle East has been mixed, with external actors such as the United States, Russia, and China playing a role in both the escalation and de-escalation of tensions. While some agreements and cooperative efforts have been achieved, the region continues to face challenges, including the rise of extremist groups, nuclear proliferation, and shifting power dynamics.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Importance of the Middle East | The Middle East is the birthplace of the three most important monotheistic religions and the greatest single reserve of oil. |
| Volatile borders | Many borders in the Middle East were drawn by imperial powers and are not based on legitimate methods, making them more artificial and less logical. |
| US foreign policy | The US has a mixed track record in its response to regional events in the Middle East. |
| US military presence | The Middle East receives more than 50% of total US military aid globally. |
| US-Iran nuclear deal | The US-Iran nuclear deal has caused friction with Saudi Arabia and Israel. |
| US-Israel relations | Israel is the US's most reliable partner in the Middle East. |
| ISIS | The rise of ISIS has led to increased US involvement in the region, working with the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS. |
| UN involvement | The UN has sought to address regional security needs through developmental aid, humanitarian aid, and assistance to vulnerable groups. |
| Regional diplomacy | Oman, Kuwait, Egypt, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Qatar, and Turkey can be sought after to bring about meaningful de-escalation in the MENA region. |
| Economic cooperation | Economic cooperation in the Middle East is relatively nascent, but there is potential for greater and more productive cooperation within the region and with external powers like the US. |
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What You'll Learn
The role of the US in Middle Eastern diplomacy
The Middle East is a unique region geographically and strategically, and it is the birthplace of the three most important monotheistic religions: Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. It is also the greatest single reserve of oil in the world. Due to its geopolitical importance, any conflict in the Middle East has the potential to affect global stability.
The US has long maintained a presence in the Middle East, and the region receives more than 50% of the country's total military aid globally. The US has official diplomatic relations with every Middle Eastern country except for two: Iran and Syria. The US has served as a negotiator between Israel and other nations, and it has been using its diplomatic ties in the region to try to prevent escalating conflicts.
Historically, the US has had an interest in controlling Middle Eastern energy resources, mainly oil, as reflected in the Red Line Agreement signed in 1928 and the Anglo-American Petroleum Agreement signed in 1944. The US has also provided aid to countries in the region, such as Lebanon and Jordan, to help them avoid revolution and maintain stability.
In recent years, the US has been involved in the fight against ISIS in Syria and has led an alliance of up to 74 countries in this effort. The US has also been working with regional organizations like the Gulf Cooperation Council and the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS.
The US has a complex role in Middle Eastern diplomacy, with a mix of diplomatic, military, and economic involvement. While the US has been successful in certain areas, such as the territorial defeat of ISIS in Syria, the region continues to face challenges, and the US has been criticized for its response to regional events.
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The impact of the Arab Spring
The Arab Spring, a wave of pro-democracy protests and uprisings, began in Tunisia in 2010 and spread across the Middle East and North Africa in 2011. It challenged entrenched authoritarian regimes and had a profound impact on the region.
The biggest single achievement of the Arab Spring was demonstrating that Arab dictators could be removed through grassroots popular revolt rather than military coups or foreign intervention. By the end of 2011, rulers had been forced from power in Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, and Yemen. Civil uprisings had also erupted in Bahrain and Syria, and major protests had broken out in Algeria, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco, Oman, and Sudan. The Tunisian Revolution, which began after the self-immolation of Tunisian Mohamed Bouazizi, brought together various groups dissatisfied with the existing system, including unemployed people, political and human rights activists, labor and trade unionists, students, professors, and lawyers.
The Arab Spring ushered in a prolonged period of political instability, unleashing all the political, social, and religious divisions that had been previously suppressed. In some countries, the breakdown of the old order led to armed conflict, as seen in Libya and Syria. The tension between the Sunni and Shiite branches of Islam in the Middle East had been rising since around 2005 when large parts of Iraq exploded in violence between the two groups.
The Middle East witnessed an explosion of political activity, particularly in countries where revolts successfully removed long-serving leaders. Hundreds of political parties, civil society groups, newspapers, TV stations, and online media outlets were launched as Arabs sought to reclaim their countries from ossified ruling elites. The voters in emerging democracies, such as Egypt, Tunisia, and Libya, often faced a confusing array of choices, and it will take time for mature political parties to take root.
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The Gulf Cooperation Council crisis
The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is a political and economic grouping comprising Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. It was formed in May 1981, during the Iraq-Iran war, to serve as a regional counterweight to Shi'ite Iran. The GCC holds a third of the world's oil reserves and allows for the free movement of citizens and capital.
In March 2014, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, and Egypt withdrew their ambassadors from Qatar, marking the first break in relations since the GCC's establishment. This was followed by a full severing of diplomatic ties in 2017, with Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt imposing a blockade on Qatar. They accused Qatar of supporting "terrorists" and being too close to Iran, which Qatar denied. This crisis negatively impacted the GCC, raising questions among member states and shifting political agendas. It also disrupted the region's balance of power and had economic repercussions, with Qatar's stock market dropping 9.7% by June 8, 2017.
Kuwait, a traditional mediator, attempted to resolve the crisis but was unsuccessful. The GCC summit in December 2018 called for unity but failed to address the blockade of Qatar. Instead, the UAE and Saudi Arabia announced a separate economic and military partnership outside the GCC. The ongoing crisis within the GCC has highlighted the need for diplomatic efforts to de-escalate tensions and promote cooperation in the region.
In recent years, there have been some positive developments towards de-escalation. In 2023, Gulf states expressed support for international diplomacy on Iran's nuclear program and sought ways to de-escalate regional tensions. Additionally, Saudi Arabia and Iran took steps towards re-normalizing bilateral relations, indicating a potential improvement in regional stability.
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The Israeli-Palestinian peace process
Diplomacy has been a key tool in foreign policy for decades, and its importance is magnified when it comes to the Middle East. The region's unique geopolitical position, its status as the birthplace of three major monotheistic religions, and its vast oil reserves mean that any conflict has the potential to affect global stability.
The Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been one of the most protracted and challenging issues in the region. Since the 1970s, there have been numerous attempts to resolve the conflict through a peace process, with varying levels of success. One notable effort was the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel, which included discussions on "Palestinian autonomy," even though no Palestinian representatives were included. The Oslo Accords, signed in 1993, were another significant step, with Israel recognizing the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) as the representative of the Palestinians, and the PLO renouncing terrorism and recognizing Israel's right to exist peacefully.
However, the peace process has also faced significant setbacks and challenges. For example, the assassination of Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in 1995 by an opponent of the Oslo Accords stalled the process. Additionally, the election of Benjamin Netanyahu, whose Likud Party historically opposed Palestinian statehood, further complicated the situation. Netanyahu's "reciprocity" policy, which linked Israel's engagement in the peace process to Arafat's support for terrorism, created additional obstacles.
Despite these challenges, the international community has continued to pursue a two-state solution, as outlined in UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338. In 2003, the Middle East Quartet (the US, Russia, the EU, and the UN) proposed a "Roadmap for Peace" to resolve the conflict through this two-state solution, but it was never implemented. More recently, in 2014, US Secretary of State John Kerry held peace process talks with Israeli and Palestinian representatives, but these were followed by a 50-day conflict in which over 2,000 Palestinians and 73 Israelis were killed.
While the Israeli-Palestinian conflict remains unresolved, diplomacy has played a crucial role in de-escalating tensions, mediating agreements, and fostering cooperation. The US, in particular, has been deeply involved in the peace process, and its mediation efforts have led to important agreements, such as the Hebron Protocol and the Wye River Memorandum.
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The Syrian Civil War
Diplomacy in the Middle East has been fraught with challenges, with the region's unique geopolitical significance making it a centre of world affairs. The Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011 as a civil uprising against the rule of the Assads, is a testament to the complexities of diplomacy in the region.
The war in Syria has drawn in multiple foreign powers, including the United States, Russia, Iran, Israel, and Turkey, each with their own interests and objectives. The United States, for instance, has been involved in efforts to defeat ISIS and has provided military aid to Kurdish allies in Syria. However, the decision by President Trump in 2018 to withdraw troops from Syria created a vacuum that allowed other powers to exert influence. Russia, in particular, has sought to negotiate ceasefires and broker deals between Syrian rebels and government forces, but its influence remains limited due to unreliable allies and a lack of understanding of local power dynamics.
The war in Syria has resulted in a deep economic crisis, with widespread poverty and displacement. The UN has played a role in facilitating peace talks and providing humanitarian aid, but these efforts have been stalled by the COVID-19 pandemic and the complexity of the conflict. Other regional powers, such as Qatar, Russia, and Turkey, have initiated separate tracks of negotiations on Syria's peace process, further complicating the diplomatic landscape.
Overall, the Syrian Civil War has proven to be a complex and challenging arena for diplomacy. The involvement of multiple foreign powers, competing interests, and the impact of international sanctions have made it difficult to achieve a sustainable peace. While efforts by the UN and regional powers have been made, the war's dynamics and the region's geopolitical complexities continue to pose significant obstacles to a diplomatic resolution.
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Frequently asked questions
The US has a long history of involvement in the Middle East. It has sought to advance its interests in the region due to its strategic and geopolitical importance. The US has provided military aid, engaged in joint military exercises, and participated in weapons development with its allies in the region. The US also played a role in the territorial defeat of ISIS in Syria and has worked with the Global Coalition to Defeat ISIS.
The Middle East faces several challenges that impact diplomatic efforts, including volatile borders, divisions between countries, and conflicts such as the Syrian Civil War and the Gulf Cooperation Council crisis. Additionally, the rise of extremist groups like ISIS and the nuclear programs of countries like Iran have created further complexities.
There have been several instances of successful diplomacy in the Middle East. For example, the US employed diplomacy and military power during the 1991 Gulf War, presenting new opportunities for the region. More recently, in 2023, Gulf states expressed support for international diplomacy on Iran's nuclear program, seeking to de-escalate tensions. Saudi Arabia and Iran have also taken steps towards re-normalizing bilateral relations, and countries like Oman and Kuwait have played a role in promoting regional diplomacy and de-escalation.
