Isabella Carter
Parliamentary systems, also known as parliamentary democracies, are a form of government where the head of the government or the chief executive derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support or confidence of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable. While most democracies in the world today use the parliamentary system, not all parliamentary systems have a constitution. For instance, Great Britain, New Zealand, and the Netherlands have no provision for constitutional or judicial review. On the other hand, countries like Canada, Germany, Japan, and Spain have constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state, while the head of government is usually a member of parliament.
Characteristics and Values of Parliamentary Systems
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Type of democracy | Parliamentary |
| Executive branch | Members have real power to make decisions |
| Legislative branch | Supreme within the three functions of government |
| Judicial branch | Independent of the legislative and executive components |
| Head of state | Monarch or president |
| Head of government | Prime minister or chancellor |
| Government change | Possible between elections |
| Government persistence | Possible despite a lack of majority support |
| Government accountability | Required to be responsive to citizens |
| Government transparency | Origin of decisions is clear |
| Government scrutiny | Regular checks by the opposition |
| Government responsiveness | Directly and immediately responsive to popular influence |
| Government stability | Prime ministers often serve longer than presidents |
| Government structure | Varies by country |
| Constitutional court | Exists in most parliamentary systems |
| Constitutional review | Absent in some parliamentary systems |
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What You'll Learn
Constitutional monarchies
A constitutional monarchy, also known as a limited monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy, is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not the sole decision-maker. Constitutional monarchies differ from absolute monarchies, where the monarch is the only decision-maker, as they are bound to exercise their powers and authorities within the limits prescribed by an established legal framework.
In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is typically the hereditary symbolic head of state, who may be an emperor, king or queen, prince or grand duke. They primarily perform representative and civic roles but do not hold executive or policy-making power. The monarch's powers differ between countries. For example, in Belgium and Denmark, the monarch formally appoints a representative to oversee the formation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election. In contrast, Norway's king chairs special cabinet meetings.
Canada is another example of a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy rooted in the Westminster tradition. Canada's constitution outlines the fundamental laws and principles that define the nature, functions, and limits of its federal and provincial governments. It also establishes the powers of the Crown, the Executive, and the Legislative branches. The Governor General, appointed by the Sovereign on the Prime Minister's recommendation, exercises executive authority on behalf of the Crown, including granting royal assent and appointing the Prime Minister.
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Parliamentary republics
A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable. Countries with parliamentary systems can be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state while the head of government is almost always a member of parliament, or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state while the head of government is from the legislature.
Many countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, such as South Africa, Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, and Vanuatu, have become parliamentary republics with their own ceremonial presidents while retaining the Westminster system of government. Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence, such as the Republic of China in 1947. Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891, but this system was later replaced by a presidential one.
In a parliamentary republic, the head of state's tenure is dependent on parliament, and the head of government and head of state can form one office, as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa. In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of the government, as in Iceland, but by convention, they may choose not to use these powers.
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Fused power systems
A fused power system is a system of government where the executive branch is not entirely separate from the legislative branch. In other words, the two powers are fused together. The United Kingdom is an example of a country with a fused power system, where the British cabinet may be described as the leading committee of Parliament. The UK's fused power system is often noted to be advantageous with regard to accountability. The centralised government allows for more transparency as to where decisions originate from.
In a fused power system, the head of government is also the head of state but is elected by the legislature. In bicameral parliaments, the head of government is generally, though not always, a member of the lower house. In the UK, the head of government is the Prime Minister, who formerly could sit in either the House of Lords or the House of Commons, but contemporary convention dictates that they serve as a member of the House of Commons. The other ministers who make up the cabinet must be members of one house or the other.
Parliamentary systems can be contrasted with presidential systems, which operate under a stricter separation of powers, whereby the executive does not form part of the parliamentary or legislative body. In a presidential system, it would require at least two separate elections to create the same effect: the presidential election and the legislative election. In a fused power system, it is possible for a government to change between elections, as a party may withdraw from a coalition over a policy or some other issue, or because the opposition may demonstrate through a vote of no confidence that the government has lost its majority.
The French Fifth Republic provides an example of the fusion of powers from a country that does not follow the Westminster system. Instead, France follows a semi-presidential or 'mixed presidential-parliamentary' system, which exists somewhere between parliamentary and presidential democracies. In France, the president does not have the power to maintain a cabinet that is opposed by a legislative majority. Although the president has the power to appoint the prime minister, they usually choose the leader of the opposition party or coalition if it is in control of the National Assembly.
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Separation of powers
Parliamentary systems can be constitutional monarchies, where a monarch is the head of state, or parliamentary republics, where a mostly ceremonial president is the head of state. Countries with parliamentary systems include the United Kingdom, Canada, Norway, Italy, Australia, Finland, Poland, Portugal, and Romania. Notably, the United States also has a similar system, called a council-manager government, used by many local governments.
While parliamentary systems may have a constitution, the UK, whose Westminster system has been adopted in many countries, does not have a single written constitution. Instead, it has parliamentary sovereignty, where Parliament is the supreme legal authority. This means that no Parliament can pass laws that future Parliaments cannot change, as every Parliament must be as powerful as the ones before and after it.
In the UK, there is no strict separation of powers, and the branches of the state are closely linked. The Prime Minister is both head of the executive (Government) and generally the leader of the majority party in the legislature (Parliament). The British cabinet can be described as the leading committee of Parliament.
However, the separation of powers is still an important idea in the UK, with the three branches of the state—the legislature, the executive, and the judiciary—each having specific and separate powers and functions. This helps to keep the branches independent and accountable, ensuring that no one part becomes too powerful. This system of checks and balances prevents each branch from abusing its power and helps maintain fairness in the system.
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Judicial independence
Not all parliamentary systems have a written constitution. For example, the United Kingdom, whose Westminster system has been adopted in many countries, has an uncodified constitution.
In the UK, there are two important conventions that help to preserve judicial independence. Firstly, the Parliament of the United Kingdom does not comment on cases that are before the court. Secondly, there is the principle of parliamentary privilege, which means that Members of Parliament are protected from prosecution in certain circumstances by the courts. The independence of the judiciary is further guaranteed by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, which replaced the Lord Chancellor with the Lord Chief Justice as head of the judiciary. The selection process for judges is also designed to minimize political interference, focusing on senior members of the judiciary rather than politicians.
In India, the constitution also gives high importance to the independence of the judiciary. The Collegium System, evolved through Supreme Court judgments, gives primacy to the judiciary in the appointments and transfers of judges, insulating the process from political interference. Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts enjoy security of tenure and can only be removed through a complex impeachment process requiring a two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
In Canada, the parliamentary system requires that the government be responsive to its citizens and operate responsibly. Cabinet ministers are individually responsible to Parliament for the exercise of their powers and are collectively accountable for all cabinet decisions. Judicial oversight ensures constitutional adherence.
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Frequently asked questions
No. While most parliamentary systems have a constitution, some countries, like Great Britain, New Zealand, and the Netherlands, do not have a written constitution.
A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of the legislature, to which they are held accountable.
A parliamentary system may be either unicameral, with just one parliamentary chamber, or bicameral, with two chambers of parliament (or houses).
In a parliamentary system, the executive branch is not entirely separate from the legislative branch. The legislative branch is supreme, and the executive and legislative functions are often blurred or merged.
The political party or coalition of parties that make up a majority of the parliament’s membership select the prime minister and department ministers. The prime minister is usually the leader of the majority party.
