Omar Bennett
The arrival of Europeans in Africa was primarily driven by economic and political interests, with varying degrees of diplomatic engagement. From the 15th century onwards, European exploration and exploitation of the African continent intensified, notably with the Portuguese playing a pioneering role in establishing trading posts and colonies along the coasts. While there were instances of diplomatic exchanges and treaties with local rulers, the relationship was often characterized by conflict, exploitation, and the pursuit of colonial expansion. The desire for resources, particularly gold and slaves, drove European powers to explore and exert control over African territories, leading to significant disruptions and devastating consequences for indigenous populations. By the 19th century, technological advancements facilitated further European expansion, with only Ethiopia and Liberia remaining outside their control by 1914. The Scramble for Africa during this period was marked by intense political rivalries and the transition from informal imperialism to direct rule, shaping the colonial landscape of the continent.
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What You'll Learn
European exploration of Africa
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias, a Portuguese explorer, first reached the Cape of Good Hope, opening a significant sea route. However, European exploration of Africa remained limited during the 16th and 17th centuries, with European powers focusing on the New World. The Portuguese established bases along the eastern coast of Africa, except for Somalia, and signed treaties with local chieftains, sending missionaries to the region. They also explored the western coast of Africa, reaching Cape Bojador in 1434 and Cape Blanco in 1441, and built a fortress on the island of Arguin in 1443, trading European goods for African gold and slaves.
In the 16th century, the Portuguese dispatched explorers to find sources of gold and silver in the interior of Africa. This led to almost constant warfare and slave-raiding campaigns as Europeans demanded labour in exchange for goods. By the 17th century, the Dutch and British also began to establish a presence in Africa, with the Dutch settling at the Cape of Good Hope and the British acquiring the Cape Colony. The French became the chief traders on the southwest coast after 1763.
In the 19th century, European exploration and colonisation of Africa intensified, with the Berlin Conference of 1884 regulating European colonisation and trade on the continent. By the end of the 19th century, direct rule was established, and European empires were in political rivalry with each other. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained outside European control, with the latter having strong connections with the United States.
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Scramble for Africa
The Scramble for Africa refers to the invasion, conquest, and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By 1914, almost 90% of the African continent was under European colonial rule.
The roots of the Scramble for Africa can be traced to the 15th century, when European exploration of sub-Saharan Africa began with the Age of Discovery, pioneered by the Portuguese. The Cape of Good Hope was first reached by Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias in 1488, opening a sea route to India and the Far East. However, European exploration of Africa itself remained limited during the 16th and 17th centuries, with European powers focusing on establishing trading posts along the coast and exploring and colonising the New World.
In the 19th century, European explorers ventured into the interior of the African continent, mapping much of East and Central Africa. Their expeditions revealed the continent's vast natural resources, which remained unexploited by local populations, and the technological superiority of industrialised European countries. The completion of the Suez Canal in Egypt in 1869, and the subsequent French-British ownership of the canal, marked an early example of non-African control over strategic African territory. By the 1870s, Europeans controlled approximately 10% of the African continent, with territories located mainly near the coasts, including Angola and Mozambique (held by Portugal), the Cape Colony (held by the United Kingdom), and Algeria (held by France).
The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, convened by Otto von Bismarck, was a pivotal moment in the Scramble for Africa. While the conference addressed issues such as ending the remaining slave trade and the reach of missionary activities, its primary purpose was to prevent war between European powers as they divided the continent among themselves. The conference laid down the rules of competition for colonies and reinforced the notion that no nation could stake claims in Africa without notifying other powers. This period also saw the rise of King Leopold II of Belgium, who aggressively pursued colonial expansion in the Congo region, securing vast territories through negotiations with local peoples.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, European powers expanded their territorial control in Africa. France and Italy extended their influence in Senegal, Tunisia, and Eritrea, while the United Kingdom began a military occupation in Egypt and continued to exert control over key waterways like the Suez Canal. Germany, driven by Weltpolitik (world policy) adopted by Kaiser Wilhelm II, became the third-largest colonial power in Africa, with colonies in Southwest Africa, Togoland, the Cameroons, and Tanganyika.
The Scramble for Africa had significant consequences, including the displacement of local populations, the exploitation of natural resources, and the imposition of colonial rule. By the mid-20th century, with the decline of European colonial empires after the world wars, most African colonies gained independence, emphasising pan-Africanism and retaining their colonial borders to prevent regional instability.
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Portuguese expeditions
The Portuguese played a significant role in the exploration of Africa, with their expeditions dating back to the 15th century. Under the sponsorship of Prince Henry the Navigator, the Portuguese embarked on methodical expeditions to explore Africa and establish trade routes to the Indies.
One of the earliest Portuguese expeditions to Africa was led by Diogo Silves, who discovered the Azores island of Santa Maria in 1427. This was followed by the exploration and settlement of the rest of the Azores islands by Portuguese mariners. In 1434, Gil Eanes, one of Prince Henry's captains, became the first to bypass the Sahara and reach Cape Bojador. Within two decades of this expedition, Portuguese ships had explored much of the West African coast.
In 1443, the Portuguese built a fortress on the island of Arguin, off the coast of modern-day Mauritania. This fortress became a hub for trade between Europe and Africa, with European wheat and cloth exchanged for African gold and slaves. The Portuguese also explored the coasts of Senegal, Gambia, and Guinea between 1444 and 1447, and in 1456, they reached the Cape Verde islands under the command of the Venetian captain Alvise Cadamosto.
The Portuguese continued their expeditions into the 16th century, with Bartolomeu Dias reaching the Cape of Good Hope and entering the Indian Ocean in 1488. This opened up a new sea route to India and the Far East. In 1498, Vasco da Gama led the first fleet around Africa to India, establishing a maritime route from Portugal to Calicut, India. The Portuguese also explored Southeast Asia, reaching Japan in 1542.
In addition to their maritime explorations, the Portuguese established trading ports and colonies in Africa and Asia. They built trading ports in far-flung locations such as Goa, Ormuz, Malacca, Kochi, the Maluku Islands, Macau, and Nagasaki. They also established colonies in Brazil, with the colonization organized by John III in 1530. The Portuguese maintained control over their trade networks by guarding against European and Asian competitors, dominating trade between Asia, Europe, and various regions within Asia.
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African-European diplomacy
In the 16th century, the Portuguese attitude towards Africa shifted due to rumours of abundant gold and silver in the interior. This led to the dispatch of Francisco Barreto to the Mutapa Kingdom in 1569 and the search for mythical silver mines in the west by Paulo Dias de Novais in 1575. The Portuguese also established many bases along the eastern coast of Africa, signing treaties with local chieftains and sending missionaries. However, by the late 16th century, the European presence in Africa became increasingly "informal", with small-scale traders taking over from official embassies.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Southern Africa saw Dutch settlement at the Cape of Good Hope and Portuguese enclaves in Angola and Mozambique. Trade relationships between the Dutch and local people, such as the Khoekhoe, profoundly impacted the nature of their contact. The Dutch demanded cattle and encroached on grazing lands, leading to the impoverishment and reluctance of the Khoekhoe to trade. Meanwhile, Portuguese attempts to maintain their position in Angola faced resistance from the Ovimbundu, requiring drastic intervention in the Benguela hinterland.
The last quarter of the 19th century witnessed a transition from "informal imperialism" to direct rule by European empires. The Berlin Conference of 1884 regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, with the United Kingdom, France, and Germany vying for influence. By 1914, only Ethiopia and Liberia remained outside European control, with Germany becoming the third-largest colonial power on the continent. The decline of European colonial empires after the world wars led to most African colonies gaining independence during the Cold War, emphasising pan-Africanism.
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Impact of European arrival
The impact of the European arrival in Africa was profound and far-reaching, shaping the continent's history and the lives of its people for centuries to come. Here is an overview of the key impacts:
- Diplomacy and Trade: European powers, particularly Portugal, sought diplomatic relations with African kingdoms. This included royal exchanges, with West African princes studying in Portugal and serving as ambassadors. Trade was a key motivator, with Europeans seeking gold, spices, and other goods. The Atlantic trade expanded the money supply and market exchanges within Africa.
- Exploration and Colonisation: The Age of Discovery in the 15th century marked the beginning of systematic European exploration of Africa, led by Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator. Europeans mapped East and Central Africa, established trading posts, and gradually moved inland. By the 19th century, European powers had transitioned from "'informal imperialism'" to direct rule, with only Ethiopia and Liberia remaining independent by 1914.
- Economic and Social Disruption: The demand for labour led to slave-raiding campaigns, disrupting African societies. The establishment of plantation colonies, such as Madeira, and the introduction of new crops and cattle grazing by Europeans further altered local economies and ecosystems.
- Disease and Demographic Changes: European arrivals brought diseases like smallpox, influenza, and measles, decimating indigenous populations in some regions. In contrast, the climate at the Cape of Good Hope suited Europeans, and their birth rates were high, leading to demographic changes over time.
- Military Conflicts: European presence led to military conflicts with African kingdoms and among the Europeans themselves. The Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century intensified rivalries between European empires, resulting in colonial disputes and the establishment of spheres of influence.
- Cultural and Religious Exchanges: Europeans sent missionaries to Africa, though these efforts were sometimes met with resistance, as in the case of Madagascar. African rulers also sent ambassadors to Europe, engaging in cultural exchanges and seeking commercial and military advantages.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, the Europeans did try diplomacy when they first arrived in Africa. The first contact between Europeans and Africans was in the 15th century, pioneered by the Portuguese. They established connections with West African rulers, who hoped to expand their trading contacts and obtain military support. Diplomacy and royal exchanges characterised the first decades of the relationship between West Africa and Portugal.
The Portuguese were motivated by the desire to meet a Christian king, who they believed lived in Africa. They also sought to divert some of the gold supply and form a Christian alliance against the growing power of the Islamic Ottoman Empire. Additionally, they wanted to explore and establish trade routes to India and the Far East.
The arrival of Europeans had a significant impact on the local populations in Africa. The establishment of trading posts and the demand for slaves disrupted existing trade relationships and led to warfare and slave-raiding campaigns. Diseases brought by Europeans, such as smallpox, influenza, and measles, also decimated indigenous populations.
The European presence in Africa evolved from informal imperialism to direct rule. Initially, small trading posts were established along the coasts, but by the middle of the 19th century, European explorers had mapped much of East and Central Africa. Political rivalries between European empires in the late 19th century further fuelled colonisation efforts, with Germany, the United Kingdom, and France vying for influence and territory.
