Malcolm Rivera
Born a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), Toussaint Louverture became a prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. He led a successful slave revolt, emancipated slaves, and negotiated for Saint-Domingue to be governed by formerly enslaved people as a French protectorate. Louverture also displayed military prowess, conquering most of British-occupied Saint-Domingue. In 1801, he promulgated his own colonial constitution, naming himself Governor-General for Life, which challenged Napoleon Bonaparte's authority. This constitution, known as the Constitution of 1801, established special laws for French colonies and asserted Saint-Domingue's autonomy. Louverture's actions and the constitution he authored played a significant role in shaping the course of the Haitian Revolution and its ultimate success.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Year of constitution | 1801 |
| Name of constitution | Constitution of Sant-Domingue |
| Author | General Toussaint Louverture |
| Type of government | Nominal French protectorate |
| Named governor | Citizen Toussaint Louverture |
| Governor's title | General-in-Chief of the army of Saint-Domingue |
| Governor's term length | For life |
| Governor's powers | Right to choose his successor |
| Governor's duties | To execute the Constitution of Sant-Domingue and to remain attached to the French government |
| Election cycle | Every five years |
| Special laws | Applicable to French colonies |
| Representation | Saint-Domingue is not to be represented in the French legislative body |
| Laws | Not applicable to French citizens |
| Emancipation | Not addressed |
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What You'll Learn
Toussaint Louverture's constitution
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture, also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture, was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), Louverture first fought and allied with Spanish forces against Saint-Domingue Royalists, then joined with Republican France, becoming Governor-General-for-life of Saint-Domingue, and finally fought against Bonaparte's republican troops.
In 1801, Louverture established his own system of government and promulgated his own colonial constitution, naming himself Governor-General for Life. This challenged Napoleon Bonaparte's authority, as it established Louverture's authority over the entire island of Hispaniola. The constitution was not a formal declaration of independence, but Bonaparte immediately recognized it as a threat and rejected it.
The constitution included provisions such as the abolition of slavery, the establishment of a central assembly, and the introduction of cultivators to Saint-Domingue. It also named Louverture as the General-in-Chief of the army of Saint-Domingue and gave him the right to choose his successor in the event of his death.
Louverture sent the constitution to the French government for ratification, but instead of gaining favor abroad, his audacity threatened the French, and he was quickly seen as a major threat. Bonaparte responded by reinstituting slavery and sending an army, led by his brother-in-law General Leclerc, to depose him. Despite fighting to a standstill, Louverture was eventually tricked into a meeting and arrested. He was deported to France and jailed at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803.
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Naming himself Governor-General-for-life
Born a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1743, Toussaint Louverture became a prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. He was a military leader who played a crucial role in transforming a fledgling slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement.
Louverture's journey began when he joined the Spanish-allied military forces, where he took on a leadership role in the rebellion, showcasing his strategic and negotiation skills. He shifted his viewpoints on slavery and abolition, emancipating the enslaved people of Saint-Domingue.
In 1796, Louverture manoeuvred Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, a French commissioner, out of power, allowing Louverture to become governor-general. However, he faced opposition from Sonthonax's proposals, which conflicted with his own values. Louverture seized power in Saint-Domingue, establishing his system of government.
In 1801, Louverture appointed a constitutional assembly, composed primarily of white planters, to draft a constitution for Saint-Domingue. On July 7, 1801, he promulgated this constitution, officially naming himself Governor-General-for-life with near-absolute powers. This constitution challenged Napoleon Bonaparte's authority, as it established Louverture's authority over the entire island of Hispaniola, formerly known as Saint-Domingue.
Article 28 of the 1801 Constitution of Haiti states:
> The Constitution names as governor Citizen Toussaint Louverture, General-in-Chief of the army of Saint-Domingue and, in consideration of the important services that the general has rendered to the colony in the most critical circumstances of the revolution, and per the wishes of the grateful inhabitants, the reins are confided to him for the rest of his glorious life.
Louverture's constitution also gave him the right to choose his successor, as outlined in Article 16:
> The citizen who will have been chosen by General Toussaint Louverture to take the reins of government upon his death, will take a vow to the Central Assembly to execute the Constitution of Sant-Domingue and to remain attached to the French government, and will be immediately installed in his functions, all of this in the presence of the army generals in active service and the commanders-in-chief of the departments who will all, individually and without cease will pledge to the new governor the vow of obedience to his orders.
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A challenge to Napoleon's authority
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture, also known as Toussaint L'Ouverture, was a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (now Haiti), he rose to become Governor-General-for-life of Saint-Domingue and led thousands of former slaves into battle against French, Spanish, and English forces.
In 1801, Louverture seized power in Saint-Domingue, established his own system of government, and promulgated his own colonial constitution. This constitution, known as the Constitution of 1801, named Louverture as Governor-General-for-life of Saint-Domingue and gave him significant powers, including the right to choose his successor. While it did not formally declare independence from France, the constitution was a direct challenge to Napoleon Bonaparte's authority.
Louverture's constitution was a direct threat to Napoleon's power and influence in the region. By establishing himself as Governor-General-for-life, Louverture effectively placed himself above the authority of the French government in the colony. Additionally, the constitution lacked provisions for French government officials and did not offer any trade advantages to France. Louverture also breached protocol by publishing the constitution before submitting it to the French government for approval.
Recognizing the threat posed by Louverture's constitution, Napoleon responded by reinstituting slavery and sending an army led by his brother-in-law, General Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc, to depose Louverture. Despite being outnumbered and outgunned, Louverture fought Leclerc to a standstill and only surrendered when Leclerc agreed to re-abolish slavery. Louverture retired to the Haitian countryside, but Napoleon continued to view him as a threat. In 1802, Louverture was tricked into a meeting with a French general and arrested. He was deported to France and imprisoned at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803.
Louverture's constitution and his challenge to Napoleon's authority had significant consequences. It further fueled the Haitian Revolution and set the stage for the final and most violent stage of the conflict. Louverture's actions and achievements inspired and empowered the Haitian people in their struggle for independence, ultimately leading to the Haitian army's final victory over the French.
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Ratification and rejection by Napoleon
In 1801, Toussaint Louverture, a Haitian general and the most prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution, seized power in Saint-Domingue, established his own system of government, and promulgated his own colonial constitution. This constitution named him as Governor-General for Life of the entire island of Hispaniola, which challenged Napoleon Bonaparte's authority.
Napoleon, who had gained power in France in 1799, passed a new constitution declaring that French colonies would be subject to special laws. Louverture, who identified as a Frenchman, strove to convince Bonaparte of his loyalty and sent Colonel Charles Humbert Marie Vincent to deliver the constitution to him. However, several aspects of the constitution were damaging to France, including the absence of provisions for French government officials, the lack of trade advantages, and Louverture's breach of protocol in publishing it before submitting it to the French government. Despite his disapproval, Vincent attempted to submit the constitution to Napoleon but was briefly exiled to the island of Elba.
Louverture wrote to Napoleon but received no reply. Instead, Napoleon decided to send an expedition of 20,000 men to Saint-Domingue to restore French authority and possibly to restore slavery as well. In 1802, Louverture was invited to a parley by French Divisional General Jean-Baptiste Brunet, but he was arrested upon his arrival. He was deported to France and jailed at Fort de Joux, where he died in 1803, before the final and most violent stage of the Haitian Revolution.
Although Louverture did not survive to see the outcome, his achievements set the grounds for the Haitian army's final victory. The French suffered massive losses at the hands of the British and Haitian armies and lost thousands of men to yellow fever, ultimately capitulating and withdrawing from Saint-Domingue. Despite this, the United States, under President Thomas Jefferson, cut off aid to Louverture and pursued a policy of isolating Haiti, fearing that the Haitian Revolution would spread.
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The constitution's impact on slavery
François-Dominique Toussaint Louverture, born a slave in the French colony of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), rose to become a prominent leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military and political acumen transformed a fledgling slave rebellion into a revolutionary movement. In 1801, Louverture promulgated his own colonial constitution, establishing himself as Governor-General for Life of the entire island of Hispaniola. This constitution had a significant impact on slavery in the region, both directly and indirectly.
Firstly, the constitution extended the abolition of slavery to the Spanish side of Hispaniola, which Louverture had recently conquered. This direct extension of abolition ensured that slavery was outlawed across the entire island. This was a significant development, as it challenged the notion of slavery as a colonial institution and asserted the right of self-governance for the people of Saint-Domingue.
Secondly, the constitution included provisions that indirectly improved the lives of former slaves and protected them from potential retribution. For example, Louverture's constitution referred to "cultivators and workers" as members of a family with a share in its revenues, elevating their status and providing them with a degree of economic security. Additionally, Louverture's policies of reconciliation and restitution towards former slaveholders further ensured the stability and protection of the newly freed population.
Furthermore, the constitution's emphasis on liberty, equality, and property rights, as stated in Article 76, provided a framework for safeguarding the freedoms of all citizens, including former slaves. This commitment to inalienable rights, regardless of colour or creed, was a core principle of Louverture's revolution and had a lasting impact on the region's approach to slavery and human rights.
However, it is important to note that Louverture's constitution also had complexities and contradictions regarding slavery. For example, his restoration of the plantation system using paid labour could be seen as a form of neo-slavery, as it maintained the economic structure of slavery without the legal designation. Additionally, Louverture's constitution was met with suspicion by the former slaves, who feared that Napoleon might use his colonial authority to restore slavery.
In conclusion, the constitution promulgated by Toussaint Louverture in 1801 had a significant impact on slavery in Saint-Domingue and the wider region. It directly abolished slavery on the Spanish side of Hispaniola, extended legal protections and economic rights to former slaves, and emphasised inalienable liberties. However, it also navigated complex political and economic realities, including concerns about potential retribution and the restoration of the plantation system. The constitution's ultimate legacy was to set the stage for Haiti's eventual independence and the establishment of the second sovereign nation in the western hemisphere.
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Frequently asked questions
Yes, Toussaint Louverture wrote and promulgated his own colonial constitution in 1801.
The constitution named Louverture as Governor-General-for-Life of Saint-Domingue, or Hispaniola, establishing his authority over the entire island.
The constitution also included social reforms, such as the abolition of slavery, and established courts of justice and public schools.
The people of Saint-Domingue were grateful for Louverture's leadership and supported the constitution, believing it assured blacks of its inviolability.
Bonaparte saw the constitution as a threat and rejected it. He sent an army to depose Louverture, who was taken prisoner in 1802 and shipped to France, where he died in 1803.
