Omar Bennett
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria succeeded the throne in 1848, and his reign was marked by the ideas of neo-absolutism. He saw himself as an absolute monarch, ruling with sole authority and without obligation to a constitution or the will of the people. This was a continuation of the repressive policies of the Metternich era. Franz Joseph believed that liberalism, which propagated the freedom of citizens, was a fundamental threat to his power. However, after facing several defeats and foreign-policy reverses, he was forced to pay attention to the constitutional question. This led to the December Constitution of 21 December 1867, which was a decisive step towards a constitutional monarchy.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Reason for becoming Emperor of Austria | Ferdinand was mentally unfit to rule |
| Date of becoming Emperor of Austria | 2nd December 1848 |
| Nature of rule | Neo-absolutism |
| Views on the constitution | Saw himself as an absolute monarch, responsible only to God, ruling the body politic with sole authority, without obligation to the provisions of a constitution or the will of the people |
| Actions taken | Took part in the formulation of foreign policy and in the strategic decisions of the time |
| Set up a very personal regime | |
| Took steps towards giving his subjects a constitution, including the passing of the December Constitution on 21st December 1867 | |
| Reissued the February Patent of 1861 as the 'Law on Representation of the Peoples in the Empire' | |
| Had the right of veto when laws were enacted | |
| Had the right of adjourning or dissolving the Reichsrat | |
| Entered into a comradeship-in-arms with Prussia in a war against Denmark in 1864 | |
| Concluded an agreement with Napoleon III of France that Austrian-held Venetia was to be given to the Kingdom of Sardinia | |
| Characterized his policy of yielding territory with one hand while fighting for it with the other as "honest but stupid" | |
| Negotiated a series of fundamental articles spelling out the relationship of the Bohemian Crown to the rest of the Habsburg Monarchy |
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What You'll Learn
The December Constitution
The unrest in Hungary threatened to erupt again, and Franz Joseph was forced to grant Hungary near-full independence in the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. To prevent the empire's non-Hungarian ethnicities from demanding similar autonomy, Franz Joseph returned to constitutionalism with the December Constitution. The constitution established freedom of the press, and parts of it are still in force today.
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The Compromise with Hungary
Hungary, the largest land within the Monarchy's state system, had been subjected to the rule of the central authorities in Vienna, which strained resources during a time of crisis. The Compromise with Hungary granted it complete autonomy in internal affairs, with its own parliament, known as Transleithania, located on the banks of the Danube in Pest. In contrast, the Austrian half of the empire, officially referred to as "the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrat" or Cisleithania, understood itself as a multinational state.
The December Constitution established the fundamental rights and powers of the Reichsrat, including civic rights, the exercise of governmental, executive, and judicial power, and the establishment of a supreme court. This constitution remained in force until the fall of the Empire in 1918, and some parts of it are still valid today, such as freedom of the press.
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The February Patent of 1861
The February Patent established a bicameral imperial parliament, still called the Reichsrat, with an upper chamber appointed by the emperor and an indirectly elected lower chamber. The members of the upper chamber were appointed for life and included the crown prince, prominent bishops, heads of noble families, and great citizens. The lower chamber, with 343 members, included representatives from Hungary, Venetia, and the remaining non-Hungarian estates. The Emperor could override the lower chamber's actions by appointing his supporters to the upper chamber.
The responsibilities of the new Parliament were divided into a 'greater' and a 'lesser' section. The 'greater' section dealt with matters affecting the entire empire, including Hungary, while the 'lesser' section handled matters in the estates. The Parliament had more decision-making power than before, but it was still completely subject to the Emperor. The Emperor could make political and military decisions without Parliament's consent and could issue "extraordinary decrees" without parliamentary approval.
The February Patent explicitly excluded women from political participation and established a census suffrage for men. It also established Czech as a language of instruction in the Bohemian schools, where only German had been permitted.
The February Patent was suspended by Emperor Francis Joseph in September 1865, provoking a mixed reaction. While the Austrian Germans protested, the Czechs, Slavs, and Poles were delighted and pushed forward with their autonomous programs. Matters progressed towards the Compromise of 1867, which included the restoration of the Constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary.
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The Punctation of Olmütz
The treaty was a significant event in the conflict between Prussia and Austria over leadership in the German Confederation. The confederation, which was dominated by Austria, had been dissolved during the Revolutions of 1848, and the Frankfurt Assembly that followed proved to be a failure. In response, Prussia took the initiative to form the Erfurt Union, a Prussia-led federation of most German states.
However, the Punctation of Olmütz marked a reversal, with Prussia abandoning the Erfurt Union and accepting the revival of the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. This treaty was seen by many as a capitulation of the Prussians to the Austrians, leading to it being dubbed the "humiliation of Olmütz".
In contrast to his foreign policy successes, Franz Joseph's domestic policies during this period were marked by a harsh rule and the formation of an intolerant police apparatus, which evoked a latent mood of rebellion among the people. Despite this, he did make significant steps towards granting his subjects a constitution, with the major one being the passing of the December Constitution on 21 December 1867, which was valid in Austria until 1918 and included the establishment of freedom of the press.
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The Austro-Hungarian Dual Monarchy
The reign of Franz Joseph I of Austria, who became Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary in 1848 at the age of 18, was marked by numerous attempts to suppress uprisings and rebellions, as well as significant shifts in the country's political system, including the transition to a constitutional monarchy.
Franz Joseph's policies were influenced by the ideas of neo-absolutism, and he saw himself as an absolute monarch, ruling with sole authority and without being bound by a constitution or the will of the people. This was a continuation of the repressive policies of the Metternich era. The young emperor, aided by his advisers and ministers, took an active role in foreign policy formulation and strategic decisions, such as entering into an agreement with Napoleon III of France in 1866.
However, the defeat at the hands of the Prussian army in the same year, along with other foreign policy setbacks, highlighted the failure of neo-absolutist centralism and made gradual reform towards a constitutional system inevitable during the 1860s. This transition was influenced by the demands of the Hungarian elite, who had been resisting the suppression of the revolution in 1848, and the nationalist movements across Europe.
On December 21, 1867, Franz Joseph sanctioned the December Constitution, which was a significant step towards establishing a constitutional monarchy. This constitution established fundamental civic rights, defined the roles of the various branches of government, and provided for the establishment of a supreme court. It remained in force until the fall of the Empire in 1918, and some parts of it are still valid today. The February Patent of 1861, which formed the constitutional basis of the Monarchy, also granted the emperor extensive authority, including the right to veto laws and appoint central bureaucracy posts.
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Frequently asked questions
No, Franz Joseph did not refuse to agree to a written constitution. In fact, he took several steps towards giving his subjects a constitution, the most significant of which was the passing of the December Constitution on 21 December 1867, which was valid in Austria until 1918.
The December Constitution established the sphere of activity of the Reichsrat, laid down fundamental civic rights, the exercise of governmental and executive power, judicial power, and provided for the establishment of a supreme court of the empire.
Initially, Franz Joseph saw himself as an absolute monarch, ruling the body politic with sole authority and without obligation to the provisions of a constitution or the will of the people. However, after facing several defeats and a crisis in the late 1850s and 1860s, he was forced to gradually reform towards a constitutional system.
