Affirmative Action: Bakke Vs Regents' Constitutional Impact

The landmark case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke in 1978 addressed the constitutionality of affirmative action programs in university admissions. The case was brought by Allan Bakke, a white male applicant to the University of California, Davis's medical school, who alleged that he faced reverse discrimination due to his race and that the university's affirmative action program violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The Supreme Court's ruling in this case set a significant precedent regarding the use of race as a factor in university admissions, with the Court striking down the university's strict racial quotas while upholding the legality of affirmative action in general.

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The US Supreme Court declared affirmative action constitutional

On June 28, 1978, the US Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, declaring affirmative action constitutional. The case was brought by Allan Bakke, a white male in his thirties, who had twice applied for admission to the medical school at the University of California, Davis, but was rejected, partially because of his advanced age. Bakke's grades and test scores surpassed those of many minority students who had been accepted, and he argued that he had suffered "reverse discrimination" on the basis of race, contrary to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the equal protection clause of the US Constitution's Fourteenth Amendment.

The Supreme Court's ruling was highly fractured, with six separate opinions issued. The Court agreed that the university's use of strict racial quotas was unconstitutional and ordered that the medical school admit Bakke. However, it also contended that race could be used as one criterion in the admissions decisions of institutions of higher education. This laid the groundwork for educational standards that still exist today.

In the ruling, Justice Powell opined that affirmative action in general was allowed under the Constitution and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He based a significant portion of his diversity rationale on the First Amendment, which has been emphasised by later scholars. Powell was joined by four other justices (Brennan, White, Marshall, and Blackmun) who dissented from the portion of the decision finding racial quotas unconstitutional but agreed that affirmative action was permissible under certain circumstances.

The Supreme Court's decision in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke has had a lasting impact on affirmative action in the United States. It affirmed that creating a diverse classroom environment is a compelling state interest under the Fourteenth Amendment. While state universities cannot set specific quotas for the number of minority students enrolled, they can consider race as one of many factors in admissions decisions. This precedent was affirmed in the 2003 case of Grutter v. Bollinger, where the Supreme Court ruled that the University of Michigan Law School's race-conscious admissions policy was constitutional as it did not involve explicit quotas.

The Court ruled strict racial quotas unconstitutional

In 1978, the US Supreme Court ruled that affirmative action was constitutional but invalidated the use of strict racial quotas in university admissions. This ruling came about as a result of the case Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, in which Allan Bakke, a white male in his thirties, sued the University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, arguing that he had suffered "reverse discrimination" on the basis of race. Bakke had twice applied to the medical school and been rejected, despite his grades and test scores surpassing those of many minority students who had been accepted.

The Supreme Court's ruling was highly fractured, with six separate opinions being issued. Powell and four of his colleagues determined that specific racial quotas in university admissions were unconstitutional and violated the Constitution's guarantee of equal protection under the law. They argued that it was unfair that minorities were eligible for 16 out of 100 spots in the class when whites could only vie for 84. The Court struck down these racial quotas and ordered Bakke admitted to the medical school.

However, Powell also joined the remaining four justices in affirming the legality of a program that considered racial background as one of many holistic factors in admissions decisions. In his view, such a policy did not specifically exclude anyone from admission, and creating a diverse classroom environment was a compelling state interest under the Fourteenth Amendment. This laid the groundwork for educational standards that still exist today, with the Court leaving the door open for race to be considered as one criterion in admissions decisions.

The Bakke case remains a fundamental precedent on affirmative action. In 2003, the Supreme Court affirmed its decision in Grutter v. Bollinger, ruling that the University of Michigan Law School's race-conscious admissions policy was constitutional because it did not involve the use of explicit quotas.

Allan Bakke was admitted to the University of California

In 1973, Allan Bakke, a white male in his thirties, applied to the University of California, Davis School of Medicine. He was rejected, despite his high GPA and MCAT scores, because of his advanced age and his unsympathetic stance towards recruiting minority students. Bakke applied again in 1974 and was rejected once more, even though minorities with lower academic scores were admitted through the special program.

Bakke was frustrated by the rejections and filed a lawsuit, arguing that the University of California had violated the equal protection guarantee of the 14th Amendment and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. He contended that a law passed to promote equality was being used for the opposite purpose, resulting in "reverse discrimination". The case, known as Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, rose through the federal courts and eventually reached the US Supreme Court.

The Supreme Court ruled in Bakke's favor on June 28, 1978, ordering that he be admitted to the medical school. The Court also declared that the university's use of strict racial quotas was unconstitutional. However, it affirmed the legality of considering race as one of many factors in admissions decisions. This laid the groundwork for educational standards that still exist today, allowing admission officers to grant racial preferences as long as they do not use explicit quotas.

Bakke was admitted to the University of California, Davis School of Medicine and graduated in 1982. The case set a precedent for affirmative action policies, with the Supreme Court affirming its decision in Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) and again in a 2016 case involving the University of Texas.

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The Court's decision laid the groundwork for educational standards

The case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, which dates back to Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, laid the groundwork for educational standards that still exist today. The case centred around Allan Bakke, a white male in his thirties who had twice applied for admission to the University of California, Davis School of Medicine, but was rejected, partially because of his advanced age.

Bakke's grades and test scores surpassed those of many minority students who had been accepted, and he argued that he had suffered "reverse discrimination" on the basis of race, contrary to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. The University of California, on the other hand, took the position that Bakke had been rejected because he was unqualified.

The Supreme Court of California ruled in favour of Bakke, striking down the admissions policy and ordering his admission. The U.S. Supreme Court then accepted the case for its October 1977 term, and on June 28, 1978, issued a mixed and fractured decision. The Court agreed that the university's use of strict racial quotas was unconstitutional and ordered that the medical school admit Bakke. However, it also contended that race could be used as one criterion in the admissions decisions of institutions of higher education.

The Court's decision in the Bakke case laid the groundwork for educational standards by setting a precedent for the consideration of race in university admissions. The Court affirmed that racial quotas were unconstitutional and violated the equal protection guarantee of the Fourteenth Amendment. At the same time, it affirmed the legality of programs that considered race as one of many holistic factors in admissions decisions. This set a standard for educational institutions to strive for diversity in their admissions processes while also ensuring fairness and equality for all applicants, regardless of race.

The University's racial quota system was deemed racial discrimination

In the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, the University's racial quota system was deemed racial discrimination. The University of California, Davis School of Medicine had adopted a policy of racial favoritism, reserving 16% or 16 out of 100 seats for minority applicants as part of its affirmative action program.

Allan Bakke, a white male in his thirties, twice applied for admission but was rejected, despite having grades and test scores that surpassed many of the minority students who were accepted. He argued that he had suffered "reverse discrimination" on the basis of race, contrary to the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the equal protection clause of the US Constitution's Fourteenth Amendment.

The Supreme Court agreed that the University's use of strict racial quotas was unconstitutional and ordered that the medical school admit Bakke. The Court found that the University's racial quota system was not narrowly tailored to achieve its stated goals and that there were other ways to achieve diversity and representation without a blatant racial quota system. The Court determined that the University's program explicitly differentiated racial groups for consideration, violating the Constitution's guarantee of equal protection under the law.

However, the Court also contended that race could be used as one criterion among many in admissions decisions. This laid the groundwork for educational standards that still exist today, allowing universities to continue to take race into account in the admissions process to create a diverse classroom environment, as long as explicit quotas are not used.

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