Women's Suffrage: A Constitutional Conundrum

The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1920, granted women the right to vote. However, the journey to achieving this milestone was long and arduous, requiring decades of agitation and protest. The fight for women's suffrage began in the mid-19th century, with the first large gathering dedicated to women's rights taking place in 1848 at the Seneca Falls Convention in New York. Despite the efforts of activists, it wasn't until the 20th century that significant progress was made, with 22 states extending voting rights to women prior to 1920. The campaign for women's suffrage faced fierce resistance, and even after the ratification of the 19th Amendment, the battle for equality continued, with discriminatory state voting laws preventing many women, especially minority women, from exercising their right to vote.

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The 19th Amendment

> "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

The road to achieving women's suffrage in the U.S. was long and challenging. Beginning in the mid-19th century, generations of women's suffrage supporters lectured, wrote, marched, lobbied, and practised civil disobedience to bring about what many Americans considered a radical change to the Constitution. The campaign for women's suffrage was deeply intertwined with the abolitionist movement, with many women who had honed their organising and advocacy skills through the fight to end slavery becoming prominent leaders in the suffrage movement, including Sojourner Truth, Lucretia Mott, Ida B. Wells, and Sarah and Angelina Grimké.

The first women's suffrage amendment was introduced in Congress in 1878 but was rejected in 1887. Despite this setback, the movement persisted, and by the late 19th century, several western territories and states began to grant women the right to vote. The push for a national amendment gained momentum in the early 20th century, with 23 states granting women full or partial voting rights through successful campaigns.

The entry of the U.S. into World War I in 1917 further galvanised the suffrage movement, as women took on visible and crucial roles in the war effort. The National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) argued that women's sacrifices and contributions during the war deserved recognition in the form of the vote. The war also brought renewed urgency to the cause, with suffragists pointing out the contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad while denying it at home.

In 1918, President Wilson shifted his position to support a federal amendment, and the following year, the amendment passed in the House of Representatives and the Senate. On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, marking its passage into law. While the 19th Amendment was a significant victory for women's suffrage, the fight for voting rights for women of colour and minority women continued long into the 20th century due to discriminatory state voting laws and systemic racism.

Women's suffrage activism

In the decades that followed, formal groups were established to lead the campaign for women's voting rights, with Black women founding many of the state, regional, and local suffrage groups. Notable organizations that emerged during this period include the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA). The AWSA, led by Julia Ward Howe, Lucy Stone, and her husband Henry Brown Blackwell, gained popularity by focusing exclusively on suffrage. The NWSA, on the other hand, advocated for a range of reforms to achieve women's equality and sought a constitutional amendment for women's suffrage. In 1890, the two organizations merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA).

As the movement progressed, supporters of women's suffrage employed various strategies to achieve their goal. Some pursued a state-by-state approach, with nine western states adopting women's suffrage legislation by 1912. Others challenged male-only voting laws in court. More confrontational tactics were also utilized, such as picketing, silent vigils, and hunger strikes. The National Women's Party (NWP), founded by Alice Paul in 1916, organized pickets outside the White House and engaged in civil disobedience to bring attention to the cause.

Despite facing fierce resistance, opposition, and even physical abuse, women's suffrage supporters persisted. By the start of the 20th century, there was renewed momentum, with 22 states extending voting rights to women before 1920. Finally, on June 4, 1919, Congress passed the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote, and it was ratified on August 18, 1920. This victory was the culmination of decades of tireless activism, agitation, and protest by women's suffrage supporters.

State-by-state women's suffrage

Women were not given the right to vote when the US Constitution was made. In fact, it wasn't until the 19th Amendment was passed by Congress on June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920, that women were legally guaranteed the right to vote in the US.

However, the road to the 19th Amendment was long and arduous, and some states granted women the right to vote before 1920. Here is a state-by-state breakdown of women's suffrage in the US:

Wyoming:

Wyoming territory granted women the right to vote in 1869, partly to attract more women to the territory, which had a disproportionately high number of men. Seraph Young, the niece of Brigham Young, was the first woman to vote under a women's equal suffrage law in the US, in a municipal election held on February 14, 1869.

Utah:

In 1869, the Utah Territory, controlled by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), gave women the right to vote. The prevalence of Mormonism in Utah made the fight for women's suffrage there unique.

Washington and Montana:

The territories of Washington and Montana passed women's voting rights during the 1870s and 1880s.

Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, and Wisconsin:

Colorado, Idaho, Oregon, and Wisconsin amended their state constitutions to grant women the right to vote. In Oregon, Abigail Scott Duniway was a long-time leader of the suffrage movement, supporting the cause through speeches and her weekly newspaper, *The New Northwest*. In Wisconsin, the Wisconsin Woman Suffrage Association (WWSA) was formed in 1869, and a women's suffrage bill was passed in 1884, allowing women to vote on school-related issues.

Texas:

The Texas Equal Suffrage Association (TESA) was a moderate group that advocated for women's suffrage in the state. By 1917, TESA had 98 local chapters throughout Texas.

New York:

The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NYSAOWS) was the best-organized movement against women's suffrage. However, in 1916, New York adopted women's suffrage, and in 1917, the state voted to give women the right to vote.

Hawaii:

In 1916, Prince Kūhiō brought a bill to Congress to grant women in Hawaii the right to vote, but it was ignored. In 1917, he brought the bill forward again, and it was passed and signed in June 1918. However, efforts to pass a bill for women's suffrage in the territorial legislature were unsuccessful, even after the ratification of the 19th Amendment.

Tennessee:

Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the 19th Amendment on August 18, 1920, allowing the amendment to pass its final hurdle of obtaining the agreement of three-fourths of the states.

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Women's suffrage organisations

The US Constitution, in the form that it was originally drafted, did not grant women the right to vote. It took several generations of women's suffrage supporters, lecturing, writing, marching, lobbying, and civil disobedience to achieve what many Americans considered a radical change in the Constitution.

The women's suffrage movement in the US comprised several organisations that advocated for a range of reforms to make women equal members of society. Here are some of the prominent organisations:

• National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA): This organisation advocated for a range of reforms to make women equal members of society. They sought to pass a Constitutional amendment for women's suffrage. Led by figures such as Julia Ward Howe, Lucy Stone, and her husband, Henry Brown Blackwell, the NWSA gained popularity by focusing exclusively on suffrage. The NWSA also included prominent male reformers as leaders and members.
• American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA): Led by Lucy Stone, the AWSA supported the 15th Amendment. The organisation pursued a state-by-state strategy to pass women's suffrage legislation.
• National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA): In 1890, the NWSA and AWSA merged to form the NAWSA, which became the largest women's suffrage organisation in the country. Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone, the NAWSA coordinated the national suffrage movement. It was made up of local and state groups throughout the United States, and it worked to elect congressmen who supported suffrage for women.
• Congressional Union for Women Suffrage: In 1913, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns founded this union to pressure the federal government to take legislative action on women's suffrage. One of their first acts was to organise a women's suffrage parade in Washington, D.C.
• National Women's Party (NWP): Formed in 1916 by the merging of the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage and the Women's Party, the NWP used World War I to highlight the contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad while restricting it at home. In 1917, they began picketing the White House to draw attention to the cause of women's suffrage.
• The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU): Established in 1873, the WCTU was the largest women's organisation at the time. Their participation in the general suffrage movement gave a significant boost to the cause.

Post-19th Amendment women's suffrage

The 19th Amendment, passed on June 4, 1919, and ratified on August 18, 1920, granted women the right to vote in the United States. The road to achieving this milestone was long and challenging, requiring decades of agitation and protest by women's suffrage supporters. The campaign for women's suffrage in the US began in the mid-19th century, with women lecturing, writing, marching, lobbying, and practising civil disobedience to achieve what many considered a radical constitutional change.

The first national suffrage organisation, the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), was established in 1869. It advocated for a range of reforms to achieve gender equality and sought to pass a Constitutional amendment for women's suffrage. The NWSA's confrontational tactics, however, were not supported by all. The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), founded in the same year, supported the 15th Amendment and focused on gaining women's access to polls at the state and local levels, believing that victories there would gradually build support for national action.

In 1890, the NWSA and AWSA merged to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which became the largest women's suffrage organisation in the country. By 1915, the NAWSA had 44 state chapters and over two million members. In the six years following its formation, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Idaho adopted amendments to their state constitutions granting women the right to vote. By 1912, nine western states had adopted women's suffrage legislation.

In 1913, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns founded the Congressional Union for Women Suffrage to pressure the federal government to take legislative action. In 1914, when World War I broke out, women in eight states had already won the right to vote. As the war progressed, NAWSA organisers argued that women's sacrifices during the war, such as joining the labour force and taking on roles in nursing, relief work, and ambulance driving, made them deserving of the vote. In contrast, the National Women's Party (NWP), formed in 1916, used the war to highlight the contradiction of fighting for democracy abroad while restricting it at home. The NWP began picketing the White House in 1917 to bring attention to women's suffrage.

In 1918, President Wilson changed his position to support a suffrage bill, and the political balance began to shift. The House of Representatives passed the amendment in May 1919, and the Senate followed suit a few weeks later. On August 18, 1920, Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify the amendment, obtaining the required agreement of three-fourths of the states. Secretary of State Bainbridge Colby certified the ratification on August 26, 1920, marking a historic change in the American electorate.

While the 19th Amendment guaranteed the legal right of American women to vote, the fight for full enfranchisement continued. The struggle to include African Americans and other minority women in the promise of voting rights persisted for decades, with many women unable to vote long into the 20th century due to discriminatory state voting laws.

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