Eleanor Finch
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on August 18, 1920, granted women the right to vote. This amendment was the culmination of a long and arduous struggle by women's rights activists, dating back to the mid-19th century. The campaign for women's suffrage was closely linked to the fight to end slavery, with several prominent activists, such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, advocating for both causes. Despite the passage of the 19th Amendment, women of colour continued to face obstacles to voting due to racial and ethnic discrimination, and it was not until the mid-20th century that they achieved more widespread suffrage. In addition to the 19th Amendment, other constitutional amendments that significantly impacted women's rights include the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, which were passed after the Civil War and addressed issues of citizenship, voting rights, and the abolition of slavery.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| 19th Amendment | Grants women the right to vote |
| 19th Amendment | Signed by 68 women and 32 men |
| 13th Amendment | Abolished slavery |
| 14th Amendment | Granted citizenship to all Americans, including former slaves |
| 14th Amendment | First mention of gender in the Constitution |
| 14th Amendment | Granted men the right to vote |
| 15th Amendment | Granted all men the right to vote, regardless of race |
| 15th Amendment | Did not grant women the right to vote |
| Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) | Seeks to end legal distinctions between men and women in terms of divorce, property, employment, etc. |
| Voting Rights Act of 1965 | Codified the right to vote for all women |
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What You'll Learn
The 19th Amendment
The roots of the women's suffrage movement can be traced back to the mid-19th century, with pioneers like Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, who drew inspiration from her experiences with the Seneca Nation, where women held significant political power. The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 is often regarded as the inception of the movement. Many early women's rights activists were also involved in the abolitionist movement, advocating for the freedom of enslaved Black women and the rights of freed women to control their labour, bodies, and time.
The push for women's suffrage gained momentum in the latter half of the 19th century, with activists employing various strategies. The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), led by Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, focused on lobbying Congress for a constitutional amendment. Meanwhile, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), led by Lucy Stone, pursued a state-by-state approach. Despite their differing tactics, both organisations played a pivotal role in advancing the cause.
The first women's suffrage amendment was introduced in Congress in 1878 but faced rejection in 1887. Undeterred, suffragists continued their efforts, and by the early 20th century, the movement had gained significant traction. In 1913, Alice Paul and Lucy Burns founded the Congressional Union for Women Suffrage, organising a women's suffrage parade in Washington, D.C., that attracted national attention. The entry of the United States into World War I in 1914 further galvanised the movement, as women took on new roles and responsibilities, challenging traditional gender norms.
On June 4, 1919, Congress passed the Joint Resolution proposing the 19th Amendment, and it was ratified on August 18, 1920, when Tennessee became the 36th state to ratify it. This amendment legally guaranteed American women the right to vote, marking a pivotal moment in the history of women's rights. However, it is important to acknowledge that the struggle for voting rights continued for women of colour, as they faced systemic racism and discriminatory state voting laws that prevented their full participation in the democratic process.
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The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments
The 13th Amendment, ratified in 1865, abolished slavery and granted freedom to all enslaved people, including Black women. This amendment was a pivotal moment in American history, as it not only ended the legal practice of slavery but also conferred new rights on formerly enslaved women, allowing them to exert control over their labour, bodies, and time.
The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, affirmed the rights of all citizens born in the United States, including former slaves. It guaranteed their rights to "life, liberty, and property" and stated that no state could pass laws infringing upon these fundamental rights. Notably, the 14th Amendment also introduced the first mention of gender into the Constitution. It specified that all male citizens over 21 years old were entitled to vote, effectively excluding women from the franchise. This insertion of the word "male" presented a new challenge for women's rights activists, who now had to contend with a constitutional barrier to women's suffrage.
The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, addressed voting rights and stated that the right to vote "shall not be denied...on account of race , colour, or previous condition of servitude." While this amendment guaranteed voting rights regardless of race, it notably did not extend the same protection to women. The exclusion of gender from this amendment's protections further highlighted the disparity in voting rights between men and women, and it became a point of contention within the women's rights movement.
The ratification of these amendments had a significant impact on the trajectory of the women's rights movement. Activists like Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony vehemently opposed the 15th Amendment, arguing that any amendment that did not include women's suffrage was unacceptable. They advocated for the inclusion of women alongside Black men in the expansion of voting rights. However, other activists, such as Lucy Stone, supported the amendment, believing that women's suffrage would soon follow. As a result of these differing strategies, the women's rights movement split into two rival organisations: the National Woman Suffrage Association, led by Stanton and Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association, led by Stone.
In conclusion, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments played a pivotal role in shaping the women's rights movement in the United States. While they brought about significant changes and freedoms, they also exposed the continued exclusion of women from full citizenship rights, particularly in the realm of voting. The debate and activism surrounding these amendments laid the groundwork for the ongoing struggle for women's suffrage, which would eventually lead to the passage of the 19th Amendment, granting women the right to vote.
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Women's Suffrage
The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments passed after the Civil War transformed the women's rights movement. The 14th Amendment, ratified in 1868, affirmed the rights of freed women and men, declaring that all citizens had the right to "life, liberty, or property". However, it also included the first mention of gender in the Constitution, declaring that all male citizens over 21 could vote. The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, affirmed that the right to vote could not be denied "on account of race". The insertion of the word "male" and the enfranchisement of African American men presented new challenges for women's rights activists.
During the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877), two rival suffrage organisations emerged: the National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA), led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, and the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA), led by Lucy Stone. The NWSA focused on lobbying Congress for a constitutional amendment, while the AWSA worked on state campaigns. Despite these efforts, no state granted women suffrage between 1896 and 1910.
In the early 20th century, women's suffrage campaigns and shifting views of traditional gender roles during World War I created a more favourable political environment for a constitutional amendment. The 19th Amendment, proposed by Congress in June 1919 and ratified in August 1920, granted women the right to vote. This amendment legally guarantees that the right of US citizens to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the federal or state governments on account of sex.
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Voting Rights Act of 1965
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is a landmark federal statute in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting. It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on August 6, 1965, during the height of the civil rights movement. The Act was designed to enforce the voting rights protected by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the US Constitution, seeking to secure the right to vote for racial minorities, especially in the South.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 was a significant response to the long history of racial discrimination in voting, particularly in Southern states. From 1888 to 1908, Southern states legalized disenfranchisement by enacting Jim Crow laws, imposing various voting restrictions such as literacy tests, poll taxes, and property-ownership requirements, which disproportionately impacted African Americans. Despite the Fifteenth Amendment's guarantee that the right to vote should not be denied based on race, the Supreme Court generally upheld these discriminatory practices during this period.
Civil rights organizations like the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) played a crucial role in pushing for the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Their efforts included peaceful demonstrations and protests in Alabama, particularly in Selma, where violent resistance from local law enforcement brought national attention to the issue. The murder of voting rights activists in Mississippi and the attack on peaceful marchers in Selma by state troopers further galvanised support for meaningful voting rights legislation.
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 had an immediate impact, with a quarter of a million new Black voters registered by the end of 1965, and significant increases in African American voter registration across the South by the end of 1966. The Act has been readopted and strengthened multiple times, including in 1970, 1975, and 1982, to expand its protections and address ongoing challenges to racial minority voting rights.
Despite the successes of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, efforts to undermine racial minority voting rights have persisted. In 2013, the Supreme Court struck down the coverage formula used to identify jurisdictions with a history of voting discrimination, weakening the Act's enforcement mechanisms. Ongoing attempts to disenfranchise Black voters, such as redistricting and limiting access to early voting, have led to the introduction of the John Lewis Voting Rights Advancement Act in Congress in 2019, aiming to strengthen voting rights once again.
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The Equal Rights Amendment
The text of the proposed amendment read:
> "Section 1. No political, civil, or legal disabilities or inequalities on account of sex or on account of marriage, unless applying equally to both sexes, shall exist within the United States or any territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof. Section 2. Congress shall have the power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation."
In 1923, Alice Paul revised the proposed amendment to read:
> "Men and women shall have equal rights throughout the United States and every place subject to its jurisdiction."
This version was named the Lucretia Mott Amendment, after a female abolitionist who fought for women's rights. Despite being reintroduced in each subsequent Congress, the ERA made little progress until the rise of the women's movement in the 1960s, when it gained increasing support. In 1971, it was reintroduced by Representative Martha Griffiths and approved by the U.S. House of Representatives. The following year, it was approved by the U.S. Senate, thus submitting the ERA to the state legislatures for ratification, with a seven-year deadline for ratification by March 1979.
However, the ERA failed to achieve the necessary ratification by the required deadline, or by the extended deadline of June 30, 1982. Despite this, there are ongoing efforts to ratify the amendment, and it continues to be a subject of debate. The ERA has been supported by prominent figures such as President Carter, who proclaimed August 26, 1978, as Women's Equality Day, and First Ladies Rosalynn Carter and Betty Ford, who co-chaired a fundraising event for the passage of the ERA.
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Frequently asked questions
The 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, passed in 1920, granted women the right to vote.
The 14th Amendment affirmed the rights of freed women and men after the Civil War, stating that everyone born in the U.S. was an American citizen with rights to "life, liberty, and property." It also introduced gender to the Constitution, defining voting rights as exclusive to "male citizens."
The 15th Amendment, ratified in 1870, stated that the right to vote could not be denied based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." This ensured voting rights for all men, regardless of race, but did not include women.
The 13th Amendment, passed in 1865, abolished slavery and granted freedom to Black women and men, giving them new rights over their labor, bodies, and time.
Women's suffrage activists employed various strategies, including lecturing, writing, marching, lobbying, petitions, picketing, silent vigils, and hunger strikes. Some focused on state-level campaigns, while others pursued a federal constitutional amendment.
